The Desert Garden at The Huntington is a Sanctuary for Succulents and a Battleground Against Poaching

Golden Barrel cacti in the Desert Garden at The Huntington Library, Art Museum and Botanical Gardens (Erik Olsen)

Plant theft, especially of rare and exotic succulents, has become a significant concern for botanical gardens, nurseries, and natural landscapes worldwide. The growing popularity of these visually striking, low-maintenance plants among collectors and hobbyists has fueled a thriving black market, now worth billions of dollars globally.

From private collections to protected areas, thieves target rare, endangered, or difficult-to-cultivate species, undermining conservation efforts and threatening the survival of these plants in the wild. The scale of this problem is vast; between 2016 and 2020, the illegal global trade in protected plant species was valued at $9.3 billion, nearly five times higher than the value of the illicit animal trade, according to the 2022 World Wildlife Trade Report by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES).

The Huntington Library, Art Museum and Botanical Gardens in San Marino, California, is one of the institutions on the front lines of this battle against plant theft. The Desert Garden at The Huntington is a place of exquisite charm…if weather permits and the temperatures are below 90 degrees. Spanning over 10 acres, the garden is one of the oldest and largest collections of cacti and succulents in the world, with over 2,000 species on display. Established in 1919 by Henry E. Huntington, it showcases a diverse array of plants from arid regions around the world, including unique specimens from North and South America, Africa, and Madagascar.

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The Desert Garden at The Huntington features a stunning variety of succulents from arid regions around the world, some of which are rarely seen outside their natural habitats. This expansive collection includes towering cacti, like the iconic saguaro and golden barrel, alongside unique agaves and aloe plants with their spiky rosettes. Smaller, intricate species like Echeveria and Crassula provide a contrast with their colorful, fleshy leaves, ranging from deep greens to vibrant reds. The garden’s layout showcases the amazingly diverse shapes, textures, and growth habits of these hardy plants, creating a landscape that highlights the beauty and adaptability of desert flora. It is a succulent lover’s paradise. Trust me, I’m one of them.

At the upper end of the desert garden, a greenhouse shelters around 3,000 vulnerable succulents that are highly sensitive to excessive water or freezing temperatures. Some of these plants are too small and delicate to compete with more robust species in the outdoor environment. Even larger specimens, like the impressive Astrophytum ornatum, remain fragile despite their size, requiring careful protection to thrive.

Unfortunately, the stunning array of succulent plants in the garden attracts not only those captivated by the diverse and resilient forms these hardy plants can take but also those who seek to add them to their private collections or profit in their illicit trade.

Succulent plants (*Sedum rubrotinctum*) at The Huntington Library, Art Museum and Botanical Gardens (Erik Olsen)

Succulent theft has become a growing concern both at The Huntington and across California and the world, fueled by the global demand for these visually striking and low-maintenance plants. Between 2016 and 2020, the illegal global trade in protected plant species was valued at $9.3 billion, approximately five times higher than the value of the illicit animal trade, according to the 2022 World Wildlife Trade Report by the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species.

The report emphasizes that plant poaching is a growing concern that leads to the loss of species, with many threatened or becoming extinct in the wild. Botanic gardens, as repositories for rare and endangered plant species, are uniquely positioned to combat this problem through various means, including raising public awareness, research, and collaboration with law enforcement and other stakeholders.

In response to a series of plant thefts from the Desert Garden in 2021, The Huntington created signage that calls attention to the crime. Photo by Linnea Stephan. | © The Huntington Library, Art Museum, and Botanical Gardens.

The Huntington’s Desert Garden, with its rare and mature specimens, is particularly vulnerable to thieves who recognize the high market value of certain succulents. Theft at the garden has been an ongoing problem, with criminals targeting species that are rare, endangered, or difficult to cultivate. Such thefts not only undermine the conservation efforts of botanical gardens but also pose a threat to the survival of these plants in the wild.

“People don’t think of it as theft when they’re just taking a little piece here or there,” says John Trager, The Huntington’s Bernie and Miyako Storch Curator of the Desert Garden and Collections. “But it’s most annoying, of course, when they take an entire plant, dig it out of the ground. Sometimes those are not that easy to replace.”

Blue echeveria, *Echeveria secunda*. (Erik Olsen)

Trager reported that the garden recently suffered a significant theft involving a species of succulent called echeveria, a large genus of flowering plants from the Crassulaceae family, native to the semi-desert regions of Central America, Mexico, and northwestern South America. The Huntington had three documented specimens, each with known provenance, making them especially valuable for scientific research. Two of the three specimens were stolen.

“When the second one was taken, we’re left with a lone individual that can’t be self-pollinated and with no chance of being able to propagate that documented collection for perpetuity,” laments Trager.

Nationally, and particularly in California, succulent theft has reached alarming levels in recent years. California’s native dudleya plants have been especially targeted by poachers, who uproot them from coastal cliffs and wilderness areas to sell them on the black market, often overseas. In 2018, California law enforcement agencies seized over 3,500 succulent plants from poachers bound for Asia, where they can fetch high prices among collectors and gardening enthusiasts.

*Aloe bussei* in the Desert Garden at the The Huntington Library, Art Museum and Botanical Gardens (Erik Olsen)

The illegal succulent trade is now estimated to be worth millions of dollars annually, with plants like Dudleya farinosa (also known as bluff lettuce) selling for as much as $100 each or more, depending on their size and rarity, and poachers often harvest them by the truckload. The damage caused by the theft of these plants may seem modest compared to the illegal wildlife trade in animals, but the impact is devastating.

Wild succulent plants have a special cachet in Asia. “It’s like having a Fendi bag on Rodeo Drive,” a California game warden told a student journalist. “A dudleya farinosa from the wild bluffs of Mendocino, California, especially a five-headed one, is apparently a super cool thing to have.”

More than 65 species and subspecies of Dudleya can be found from Southern Oregon to the southern tip of Baja California, including the Channel Islands and Baja California Islands, the Sierra Nevada and Santa Monica Mountains, and parts of Arizona and Utah. Poaching operations often involve stripping entire landscapes, leaving behind ecological damage that can take decades to repair.

California *wildlife officer Pat Freeling replants a Dudleya in Mendocino County, CA*
*(Travis VanZant/California Department of Fish and Wildlife via AP)*

“When you start removing them from the ecosystem, the cascading effects are potentially really significant,” Jared Margulies, an assistant professor at the University of Alabama who studies the illicit succulent trade told Vox.

The environmental damage caused by succulent poaching has become so severe that, in September 2021, California enacted a law prohibiting the harvesting of dudleya from the wild without explicit permission from the landowner or a proper permit. Violating this law is considered a misdemeanor and can result in a prison sentence of up to six months and fines reaching as high as $500,000. But enforcement remains a challenge due to the remote locations where thefts often occur.

Desert Garden at The Huntington Library, Art Museum and Botanical Gardens (Erik Olsen)

To combat this growing threat, The Huntington has implemented a range of measures. The garden’s extensive security protocols include increased surveillance, patrolling guards, and staff vigilance around particularly vulnerable plants. But The Huntington has also taken a more innovative approach by launching a facility dedicated to propagating and selling plants recovered from theft sting operations. This facility operates in partnership with law enforcement and conservation agencies to recover stolen plants and reintroduce them to legal, sustainable markets. The recovered plants, after undergoing health checks and quarantine periods to prevent the spread of pests and diseases, are propagated in controlled environments to ensure their survival and genetic diversity.

Succulent plants available to buy at the annual Cactus and Succulent Show and Sale.
Photo by Sandy Masuo. | © The Huntington Library, Art Museum, and Botanical Gardens.

The Huntington’s unique program, known as International Succulent Introductions (ISI), is designed to encourage the conservation and cultivation of rare and unusual succulents from across the globe. Founded in 1958 at the UC Botanical Garden at Berkeley, the ISI was taken over by the Huntington in 1989, where it has been steadily expanding ever since. The ISI aims to reduce the demand for wild-collected plants by offering collectors, researchers, and enthusiasts an opportunity to acquire ethically propagated succulents.

“The purpose is to distribute new and interesting plants to collectors, institutions, researchers, et cetera, anyone who’s interested,” says Trager. “A lot of them are increasingly endangered, so there’s a conservation component, but we’re interested in both wild species and horticultural entities. So both of them are within our purview.”

The Covid pandemic led to a rise in interest in indoor gardening and houseplants, including succulents, as people spent more time at home and looked for ways to enhance their living spaces and alleviate stress. Succulents, known for their low-maintenance care and unique aesthetic appeal, became particularly popular. The existence of the ISI allowed many people to collect unusual varieties not available at their local nurseries.

“The ISI is fairly unique,” says Trager. “It’s the only plant introduction program of any botanic garden that exclusively focuses on succulent plants.”

Visitors walk through the Desert Garden at The Huntington Library, Art Museum and Botanical Gardens (Erik Olsen)

Each year, the ISI introduces a carefully curated selection of plants, including both new species and cultivated varieties, all grown at The Huntington’s facilities. They offer about 30 plants through mail order each year via an online catalog. The remaining plants are then sold to visitors at the annual Cactus and Succulent Show and Sale, which took place this June at the Huntington. This initiative not only provides access to rare specimens but also supports conservation efforts by raising awareness about the risks of poaching and habitat destruction. The proceeds from the sale of these plants are reinvested into further conservation work, research, and education, making ISI a vital component in the global effort to protect succulent diversity.

Trager points out that since the program moved to the Huntington, the garden has distributed over 1,480 species and cultivars, totaling approximately 74,000 plants. Given that many of these plants are endangered, the program functions as a kind of Noah’s Ark, protecting these rare species and helping to ensure their survival for the future.

By using recovered plants to promote sustainability and education, The Huntington sets a powerful example in the fight against illegal succulent trade. This effort highlights the vital role botanical gardens play in conserving plant diversity while celebrating the stunning beauty and intricate wonder of desert flora, inspiring visitors to cherish and protect these unique organisms.

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California’s Monterey Formation: Unraveling the Secrets of a Fossil-Rich, Oil-Bearing Geological Wonder

Monterey Formation rocks near Newport Beach (Erik Olsen)

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California’s Monterey Formation is one of the most fascinating geological formations in the United States. Stretching along the California coast from San Francisco to Los Angeles, this formation is notable for its incredible diversity of siliceous rocks—rocks rich in silica, such as shale, chert, diatomite, and porcelanite. While these rocks are interesting to geologists, the Monterey Formation is also significant for its potential to explain the origins of petroleum deposits that have fueled California’s economy for over a century. NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory once called it “California’s primary petroleum source rock.”

Fracture network of joints and cross-joints exposed on bedding surface of siliceous shale. Note linked, larger-aperture fracture in center with oxidation rim. Montaña de Oro State Park. (NASA JPL)

At the heart of the Monterey Formation’s geology is the unique composition of many different types of rock that come together in such a way that they create an ideal environment for trapping oil. The intricate layering of organic-rich shales, siliceous rocks, carbonates, and diatomites forms a complex network of porous and permeable spaces, allowing oil to migrate into these reservoirs. Over time, these rocks act like natural sponges, effectively capturing and holding large quantities of oil within their formations, making the Monterey Formation one of California’s most significant petroleum sources. It is estimated that over 38 billion barrels of oil have been produced to date from fields whose source rock is the Monterey.

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Diatomite, a light, porous rock formed from the fossilized remains of diatoms, is a dominant feature. Diatoms, microscopic algae with silica-based cell walls, thrived in nutrient-rich waters, leading to the thick layers of sediments that later became diatomite. Chert, another key rock type in the formation, is formed from the recrystallization of biogenic silica, adding to the complexity of the geological record. Interspersed with these are organic-rich shales, which contain substantial amounts of organic material called kerogen. Over millions of years, kerogen undergoes a biological transformation becoming the oil and gas that now serve as the backbone of California’s petroleum industry (see our story on the history of the Long Beach oil industry).

The Monterey Formation displays a fascinating and unusual mixture of geological deposits, from deep ocean basins to shallow continental shelves. During the Miocene, upwelling currents along the California coast brought nutrient-rich waters to the surface, fostering high biological productivity and depositing vast amounts of biogenic silica, a form of silicon dioxide (SiO₂) that is produced by living organisms. Periods of fluctuating sea levels, driven by climate changes and tectonic shifts, further shaped the environment. During low sea levels, parts of the continental shelf were exposed, allowing for erosion from wind and sun. These would shift to periods of high sea levels, which allowed for denser, deep-water sedimentation. In some layers, the presence of evaporites—minerals that form from the evaporation of water—suggests extensive episodes of arid conditions, similar to what we are experiencing now with California’s recurring periods of drought.

Offshore oil platforms along California’s coast drill into the Monterey Formation, either tapping directly into its fractured shale or extracting oil that has migrated into more porous sandstone reservoirs. (Photo: Erik Olsen)

Much of the pioneering research on the geology, formation, and unique composition of the Monterey Formation was conducted by the late Robert Garrison, a distinguished professor of oceanography at the University of California, Santa Cruz. Garrison was considered the foremost expert on the Monterey Foundation, and his work was instrumental in revealing how the Monterey Formation’s diatomaceous and phosphatic deposits were shaped by a combination of oceanographic upwelling, climatic shifts, and tectonic activity during the Miocene epoch.

Petroleum geologists find the Monterey Formation especially intriguing because it serves as both a source and a reservoir for oil and gas, allowing them to better understand the processes of oil and gas generation, migration, and accumulation, as well as to develop more efficient extraction methods to maximize its economic potential. They are also quite beautiful. Walk along the beach near Crystal Cove in Orange County, for example, and examples of Monterey Formation rocks abound.

Monterey Formation rocks near Little Corona in Newport Beach (Erik Olsen)

Oil is formed from the remains of ancient marine organisms, such as plankton and algae, that were buried under layers of sediment and subjected to heat and pressure over millions of years, transforming them into hydrocarbons. Some of these hydrocarbons migrated into more permeable rocks, creating substantial oil fields that have been exploited for decades in Southern California. Certain layers of the Monterey Formation, particularly the fractured chert and dolomitic sections, also serve as excellent reservoirs due to their porosity and permeability, allowing them to store oil and gas for long periods of time.

Beyond its geological and economic importance, the Monterey Formation is a treasure trove for paleontologists. Its layers preserve a variety of marine fossils, including diatoms, radiolarians, foraminifera, and coccolithophores. These microfossils offer a detailed look at past ocean conditions, helping scientists reconstruct the climatic and oceanographic history of the Miocene epoch. Additionally, the formation contains fossils of larger marine vertebrates, such as whales, seals, and fish, providing further insight into the ecosystems of ancient oceans.

Microscope image of microfossils and organic matter in Monterey rocks. (Cal State Long Beach)

However, the Monterey Formation is not just a source of knowledge and resources; it also presents challenges, particularly in terms of potential environmental harm and geohazards like landslides. The soft, diatomaceous earth layers within the formation are prone to landslides, especially when water-saturated or fractured by tectonic action. This makes some coastal areas of California, where the Monterey Formation is exposed, particularly vulnerable to slope instability, posing risks for construction and development. Many recent news stories have documented the increasing rate at which the California coast is tumbling into the sea. An excellent recent book on the subject is Rosanna Xia’s California Against the Sea: Visions for Our Vanishing Coastline.

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California’s geology is a remarkable mosaic that tells a story of immense geological diversity and dynamic processes. Among its many treasures, the Monterey Formation stands out as a geological marvel—its intricate layers, rich fossil beds, and significant economic potential continue to captivate scientists and researchers from around the world. This unique formation is more than just rock; it is a time capsule that preserves millions of years of Earth’s history, from ancient marine ecosystems to dramatic shifts in climate and tectonic activity. As geologists, paleontologists, and environmental scientists delve deeper into its mysteries, the Monterey Formation reveals invaluable clues about the past while shaping our understanding of California’s ever-evolving landscape. It serves as a profound reminder of the powerful forces that have sculpted one of the most geologically varied regions on the planet and continues to inspire exploration and discovery in the fields of Earth science.

Why bringing back California’s kelp is so important

Sea urchins have devastated kelp forests in California.

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Two centuries ago, the waters off the California coast were home to a vibrant ecosystem of plants and animals. Vast forests of kelp provided habitat for thousands of species of fish and invertebrates. Some of these kelp forests were so dense that light hardly penetrated to the seafloor. But now, along much of the coastline, the kelp is all but gone.

The tragedy here goes far beyond species loss and a troubling decline in overall biodiversity in our coastal waters. Kelp are also great at taking up carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and they help reduce acidification of the oceans, essentially cleaning the water and bringing balance to the entire ecosystem.

Kelp off the coast of Anacapa Island in California’s Channel Islands (Photo: Erik Olsen)

But now, that balance is has been disrupted. A recent study says that California’s bull kelp (Nereocytis luetkeana) forests (one of several species that are endemic here) have declined by 93% in just the last five years.

It’s difficult to fathom the scale of this loss, and we are only beginning to understand what it will mean for the overall health of our coastal waters. When the kelp disappears, the entire complex web of organisms that rely on it for habitat and food is disturbed. That is to say, large swaths of the near-shore California coastal ecosystem depend upon kelp.

So, what is happening? Well, first a little history.

A healthy kelp forest in Channel Islands National Park (NPS)

Two centuries ago, when kelp forests along the coast were so abundant they stretched for hundreds of miles with thick canopies that could be seen at the surface. At the time, urchins existed, but their populations were held in check by sea otters, which have been known to eat 1/4 of their body weight in urchins in a day. But unrestrained hunting by trappers (often Russian and British) in the early 1800s and into the mid-century brought sea otter populations down so low, at one point they were considered extinct in the wild. With the otters gone, urchins flourished and along certain stretches of coast, the kelp disappeared. Remember, this was 200 years ago, long before California was even a state.

Otters have come back to certain stretches of the California coast, especially near Monterey, and in some cases, the kelp has come back. And, in fact, even now, some places around the state, things aren’t nearly so bad. One-third of southern California’s kelp forests are found within Channel Islands National Park and Channel Islands National Marine Sanctuary, where no-take marine reserves prohibit all take of living, geological, or cultural resources. In the reserve, California sheephead, spiny lobsters, and sunflower stars eat sea urchins and keep their population from exploding.

Bust most other regions are not so lucky. And things have gotten even worse. This is where it gets more complicated.

A diver measures kelp growth (Kate Vylet/California Sea Grant)

An intense ocean warming period between 2014 and 2017 is the likely culprit in causing a mass die-off of starfish. Starfish prey on native purple urchins, keeping their numbers in check. With mass numbers of sea stars dead, the urchins proliferated, eating their way through the kelp forests. The result: disaster.

“What we’re seeing now are millions and millions of purple sea urchins, and they’re eating absolutely everything,” said Laura Rogers-Bennett, an environmental scientist with UC Davis Karen C. Drayer Wildlife Health Center and California Department of Fish and Wildlife operating out of the UC Davis Bodega Marine Laboratory. “They can eat through all the anemones, the sponge, all the kelp, the fleshy red algae. They’re even eating through calcified alga and sand.”

The loss of kelp forests in California should be immediately recognized as a major ecological problem to solve, and while some projects are underway to do just that, much more needs to be done.

Several organizations, most of them California-based, are trying to reduce the number of urchins in Southern California. For example, UC Davis researchers are working with Bay Area shellfish company Urchinomics to explore “ranching urchins, removing them from the seafloor and fattening them up to be sold as sushi. Urchins are highly valued by Japanese consumers and are even sold in some California sushi restaurants. One problem is that purple urchins tend to be too small to harvest for human consumption, hence the need to increase their size via aquaculture. But will this be enough to stop the urchin’s march towards environmental saturation? Probably not.

The Bay Foundation in Santa Monica launched a program to restore kelp beds around 150 acres of urchin barrens along the rocky reefs off Palos Verdes. Scientists, recreational divers, and fishermen go down and smash the urchins with small hammers. The effort has shown promise, with kelp growing back in 46 acres of restored reef. Again, this is not nearly enough.

Kelp forest off Palos Verdes Peninsula (Erik Olsen)

Other strategies are outlined in the Sonoma-Mendocino Bull Kelp Recovery Plan, released last June by the Greater Farallones Association and California Department of Fish and Wildlife. It includes measures such as creating a kelp oasis to preserve seed stock and repopulate bull kelp when conditions are conducive to restoration.

This may all be too little too late. We believe state, local and federal agencies should redouble their efforts now to mitigate the loss of kelp in California waters. The implications for further, perhaps total, loss of California’s once-flourishing kelp forests are just too dire and action is required now. As the authors of the report write “it may take decades before the complex biological communities, associates, and the ecosystem services provided by macroalgal [seaweed] forests rebound.”

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The California Sea Lion’s Story of Survival and Conservation

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Basking under the sun, barking from buoys, and sometimes tormenting boat owners, the California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) is a familiar, playful marine mammal common up and down the coast. Known for their intelligence, dog-like demeanor, and underwater agility, they are a symbol of the Golden State’s rich coastal biodiversity. Despite occasional years of periodic starvation and decline, the California sea lion has made a remarkable recovery over the last two decades and is now one the most common marine mammals seen along the California coast. It’s hard to go out in one of California’s many harbors and not see at least one prowling about, often poking their heads above water to take a loud breath.

California sea lions are part of the family Otariidae, which includes all eared seals. These agile marine mammals are well adapted for life in the ocean, with streamlined bodies, strong flippers, and a layer of blubber to help regulate body temperature. Male sea lions are larger than females, weighing up to 800 pounds (363 kg) and measuring around 8 feet (2.4 meters) in length. Females are slightly smaller, weighing around 250 pounds (113 kg) and measuring about 6 feet (1.8 meters) long. Although many people refer to them as seals, they are a different species, and it is fairly easy to tell them apart. Unlike true seals, sea lions have visible ear flaps and long front flippers that enable them to “walk” on land.

Ranging from the Gulf of California to British Columbia, these marine mammals are a frequent sight around harbors, beaches, and offshore islands. These highly social creatures also congregate in large colonies on rocky shores, such as the Channel Islands off the coast of Southern California. During breeding season, males establish territories and compete fiercely for females, often engaging in vocal displays and physical battles. The females give birth to a single pup each year and provide maternal care for several months until the pup is ready to venture into the water.

California sea lions are opportunistic feeders, primarily preying on fish species such as anchovies, herring, salmon, and squid. With their excellent underwater vision and agile swimming abilities, they can dive to great depths, sometimes reaching over 900 feet (275 meters) to search for their prey. They are capable of consuming significant amounts of food, with adult males consuming up to 5-8% of their body weight each day.

Sea lions on a buoy in Orange County. (Erik Olsen)

Despite their formidable size and agility, California sea lions face predation from their most notorious adversary, the white shark (Carcharodon carcharias). White sharks are highly efficient hunters and occasionally target sea lions, particularly the young as well as inexperienced individuals. While these encounters are relatively rare, they underscore the ongoing struggle for survival that sea lions face in their natural habitat. Because of the resurgence in the sea lion population on the West Coast, white shark populations have also rebounded significantly, with a recent study suggesting that there can be as many as 40 juvenile white sharks just 50 feet from shore at some of the most popular beaches in SoCal. While this rise in the white shark population off California has made many people concerned about the potential for attacks on humans, records show that just 15 people have died by shark attacks in California since the 1950s.

The California sea lion population has experienced both remarkable recoveries and challenging times. In the early 20th century, they faced severe exploitation for their fur, resulting in significant declines in their numbers. However, conservation efforts and legal protection brought about a remarkable turnaround for these marine mammals.

Under the Marine Mammal Protection Act and state regulations, California sea lions are strictly protected, prohibiting hunting and harassment. Additionally, the establishment of marine protected areas and efforts to reduce pollution and fishery interactions have contributed to their recovery. As a result, the population rebounded, with estimates suggesting that there are now around 300,000 individuals along the coast of California.

Sea lions in Newport Beach. Credit Erik Olsen

Despite their resurgence, California sea lions face ongoing challenges, particularly during certain years when large-scale die-offs occur due to starvation. These events are often linked to El Niño weather patterns, which disrupt the marine ecosystem and cause shifts in fish populations. During such periods, the availability of prey may be limited, leading to malnutrition and high mortality rates among sea lion pups.

While California sea lions have made a remarkable recovery, ongoing conservation efforts are crucial to ensuring their long-term survival. Monitoring their populations, protecting their habitats, and addressing climate change impacts are vital steps to safeguarding these charismatic marine mammals. By raising awareness and promoting responsible stewardship of our coastal ecosystems, we can ensure a bright future for the California sea lion and the diverse marine life it represents.

There’s something quietly remarkable about living alongside California sea lions. They slip through the surf with ease, haul out on docks and rocks, and bring a sense of life and motion to the coastline. Like puppies of the sea, they’re curious, playful, and deeply social. But they’re also resilient animals that have weathered challenges and bounced back. Not that threats still don’t exist. But their presence is a reminder of the ocean’s complexity and beauty, and of how lucky we are in California to share our shores with them.

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The Mighty Oaks of California Are a Keystone of the Golden State’s Ecosystem

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Oak trees hold a profound presence in the landscape of California, constituting a living link between the state’s rich biodiversity and cultural history. Approximately 20 species of oak trees have been recorded in California, each playing a vital role in the ecosystem and making these trees an essential part of the state’s natural landscape.

Among the most significant species are the Coast Live Oak, the Valley Oak, the Blue Oak, and the California Black Oak. The Coast Live Oak, resilient against the salty sea breeze, thrives along California’s coastal regions. The Valley Oak, a symbol of endurance, dominates the fertile inner valleys, while the Blue Oak’s blue-green foliage characterizes the hot, dry foothills of the Sierra Nevada and Coast Ranges. Meanwhile, the California Black Oak, found primarily in mountain regions, is appreciated for its vibrant autumnal foliage and acorns, an essential food source for various wildlife. (Most oak species, particularly those in California, tend to have evergreen foliage or don’t exhibit the same dramatic autumn color change as the black oak.)

Oak tree in Descanso Gardens in La Cañada Flintridge

Oaks in California boast a rich history that dates back millions of years, with fossil records suggesting their presence since the Miocene epoch. This rich lineage is intertwined with the tree’s biological traits, with each species evolving to inhabit specific ecosystems. As a result, oak trees have managed to extend their reach across the state’s diverse terrain, from the sun-bathed coasts to the crisp mountain ranges. Whether deciduous or evergreen – with most species in California being the latter – oaks have a remarkable ability to withstand the dry summer months as well as the occasional harsh winter. This resilience can be attributed to their deep root systems and hardy leaves, allowing them to survive and thrive in the region’s unique climate.

Genetics plays a huge role as well: Oaks have a robust genetic makeup that equips them with resilience against various environmental stresses. A study published in the journal “Nature Plants” in 2020, led by researchers at the University of California, Davis, revealed that the genome of the oak tree contains a rich diversity of genes involved in resistance to diseases and stresses. This genetic diversity allows oaks to adapt and survive in different environments and against various threats.

One of the most intriguing findings from the study is the presence of duplicated genes in the oak genome. These gene duplications have occurred over millions of years and are associated with enhanced disease resistance, essentially they get more than the regular protection. This genetic diversity allows oak trees to adapt to various threats, such as pests and pathogens, over time. The study also suggests that these somatic mutations—genetic changes that occur in the cells over the tree’s lifetime—are heritable, contributing to the ongoing evolution of the species and its capacity to survive in changing environments.

Oaks are also remarkably adept at withstanding environmental stresses such as drought, extreme temperatures, and poor soil conditions. Research in forest ecology, including studies published in journals like Trees and Forest Ecosystems, has shown that oaks’ physiological adaptability to different environmental conditions is a crucial factor in their long lifespan. These studies highlight how oaks exhibit significant plasticity in their physiological traits, allowing them to adjust to varying levels of water availability, temperature, and other environmental factors.

California oaks are not just a testament to natural resilience; they are an ecosystem unto themselves. They are the cornerstone of a vibrant biodiversity that encompasses hundreds of animal species. The trees provide shelter and serve as breeding habitats for various animals, from squirrels and deer to a myriad of bird species. The acorn, in particular, play a vital role as a food source. Insects, too, have carved out an existence around the oaks, with some species laying their eggs within the tree’s bark.

This intrinsic connection between the oaks and the animal kingdom extends to humans as well. Historical records show that indigenous tribes in the region used acorns as a staple food. In modern times, the strength and durability of oak wood have made it a preferred choice for construction and furniture-making. Oak is also used in the production of high-quality wine barrels, lending its unique character to the Californian wine industry. The top fifty most expensive wines in the world are oak-aged in some way.

The oak trees of California are renowned for their impressive size and longevity. The Valley Oak, the largest of California’s native oaks, can reach over 100 feet in height and live for several centuries. These grand trees also contribute significantly to carbon sequestration. A mature oak has the capacity to absorb up to 50 pounds of CO2 annually, thus helping mitigate climate change while improving air quality. A mature oak forest can store up to 50% more carbon than an equally-sized forest of other trees.

Despite their remarkable resilience, oaks in California face a myriad of challenges. Threats stem from habitat loss, climate change, and diseases such as Sudden Oak Death. Urban development often comes at the expense of oak woodlands, while shifts in climate patterns pose potential risks to the growth and distribution of oaks.

Conservation efforts to protect California’s majestic oaks have become increasingly critical in recent years, shaped by a heightened understanding of the tree’s ecological significance and the mounting threats they face. Various local, state, and federal entities, as well as numerous non-profit organizations, have joined forces in these endeavors, harnessing a broad array of strategies to ensure the survival and thriving of California’s oaks. The Oak Woodlands Conservation Act is a key legislative effort, providing funding to conserve oak habitats. Additionally, various organizations, such as the California Oak Foundation, run planting and restoration projects, as well as research initiatives to combat threats like Sudden Oak Death and climate change.

One of the primary conservation strategies involves the protection of oak habitats, specifically oak woodlands. These regions are often hotspots of biodiversity, and their preservation is crucial for the health of many interconnected species, including oaks themselves. For example, the Oak Woodlands Conservation Act, mentioned above and enacted by the state of California, provides funding to acquire oak woodland habitats for conservation purposes, ensuring these areas remain untouched by urban development or agriculture.

In addition to the legal protection of existing oak habitats, restoration projects are an important aspect of conservation efforts. These projects involve the replanting of oaks in areas where they have been lost due to disease, development, or other causes. The California Oak Foundation runs regular planting programs, involving local communities in the process to raise awareness about the importance of oaks and fostering a sense of responsibility for their protection.

Research also plays a vital role in oak conservation. Scientists are continually studying the threats faced by oaks, including diseases like Sudden Oak Death, and developing ways to mitigate them. They are also exploring the potential impacts of climate change on California’s oaks, seeking strategies to bolster their resilience against rising temperatures and shifting weather patterns. This research informs management strategies and policy-making, ensuring conservation efforts are based on the best available science.

By fostering a deeper connection between the people of California and their native oaks, these initiatives cultivate a broader culture of conservation that can help ensure the survival of these majestic trees for generations to come. The collective aim of these diverse conservation strategies is not merely the survival, but the flourishing of California’s oaks, securing their rightful place in the state’s rich and dynamic ecosystems.

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Saving California’s White Abalone is Part of a Much Bigger Story

The current effort to bring back the white abalone is one of numerous projects underway in California to revive the state’s once-thriving marine environment.

If you grew up in Southern California in the 1970s, there were a few things that defined California: surfing, skateboarding, the Eagles (preferably on the radio while driving down the Pacific Coast Highway) and abalone.

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The abalone was an icon of beach culture, celebrated in poetry and song, a wondrous gift from Mother Nature. Almost every house near the coast had upturned abalone shells on the coffee table or as decorative items in a garden, their opalescent mother-of-pearl interior shells glistening jewel-like beneath the warm California sun. They hung near front doors or in backyards by the half dozen from string or fishing line, acting as wind chimes when the cool breezes blew in from the Pacific. Our air, our light is different than other places.

They once numbered in the millions off the California coast, but now they are endangered. As the Los Angeles Times put it in 2019, “Abalone once were to California what lobster is to Maine and blue crab to Maryland, so plentiful they stacked one on top of another like colorful paving stones.”

But then something terrible happened.

The white abalone (Haliotis sorenseni) fishery, in particular, went out of control. Commercial abalone fishing from 1969–1972 was so lucrative and so unrestrained that the catch went from roughly 143,000 pounds per year to just 5,000 pounds per year in less than a decade. Millions of pounds were harvested by commercial fishermen, and diving for abalone was a common and favored pastime. In 1997, state officials in California ceased all white abalone fishing because population levels had reached perilous lows. By 2001, the numbers of white abalone found along the coast were so low that they became the first marine invertebrate listed as endangered on the Endangered Species Act. But it was too late. The population had declined by almost 99 percent.

It is estimated that around 1,600 individuals remain, and at one point, it was feared the species would go extinct by 2010 without intervention. Currently, there is growing concern that the small populations still surviving in the wild may be highly vulnerable to withering syndrome disease.

California is home to seven species of abalone (red, pink, black, green, white, pinto, and flat), none of them are plentiful any longer in California waters, but it is the white abalone, in particular, that became the most prized for its tender, flavorful flesh. We loved white abalone. And then they were gone.

Despite a fishing ban for over two decades, wild populations of white abalone have not shown signs of recovery. Abalone reproduce through broadcast spawning, where they release their gametes into the water. This method requires a certain population density to be effective, but current wild populations of white abalone are too sparse for successful natural reproduction.

In 2019, scientists at UC Davis’ Bodega Marine Lab in Bodega Bay launched one of the most important species restoration efforts in the history of the state. On November 18, 2019, researchers from the marine lab, in cooperation with the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) carefully released thousands of baby white abalone into the waters of Southern California. Biologists measured and marked each one with a unique numbered tag affixed to their shell to distinguish them from wild white abalone (of which there are perilously few). This marked the first release of endangered white abalone into the wild in coastal waters. What’s crazy is that the white abalone that have been bred in the lab constitute the largest population of the slow-moving mollusks in the world. That’s right, there are more white abalone living in captivity than there are in the wild. Until now.

“Early on we knew that this species was really in danger of going extinct and that the only viable alternative to save it was starting a captive breeding program,” said Ian Taniguchi, a biologist with the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW) who has been involved in white abalone restoration since 1992.

The White Abalone Restoration Program in California has made significant progress in recent years, although challenges remain. The program, now led by a coalition of organizations including NOAA Fisheries, the University of California, Davis, and The Bay Foundation, focuses on restoring the population of this critically endangered species through captive breeding and outplanting efforts.

Currently, the program has successfully bred and outplanted thousands of juvenile white abalone into the wild, particularly along the Southern California coast. These efforts are part of a broader strategy that includes improving spawning techniques, monitoring wild populations, and enhancing habitat conditions. Despite these efforts, white abalone populations in the wild are still vulnerable due to factors like disease, warming waters, and low population densities that hinder natural reproduction.

The program’s ongoing efforts include monitoring environmental conditions that affect abalone habitats, such as oxygen levels and temperature, to optimize outplanting strategies. Additionally, the restoration efforts are expanding, with new techniques and partnerships aimed at increasing the resilience of outplanted populations and ultimately ensuring the species’ survival in the wild

Cultured Abalone Farm (Photo: Jennifer Boyce)

“Early on we knew that this species was really in danger of going extinct and that the only viable alternative to save it was starting a captive breeding program.”
Ian Taniguchi, a biologist with the California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW)

Abalone are far more valuable than merely as a food item. They are keepers of the kelp forest. According to scientists, the abalone eat kelp, but they also clear rocks of any dominant species and thus increase kelp diversity so that multiple kelp species can flourish. When the kelp is healthy and diverse, coastal waters see an explosion of diversity in fish and other animals that depend on kelp forest habitat.

While the success of the abalone recovery program hangs in the balance, its mere existence needs to be recognized as part of a much larger tapestry of species and ecosystem recovery projects currently underway that are aimed at restoring California’s coastal ecosystem to some semblance of what it was centuries ago.

That is, of course, impossible. The numerous written accounts by early California settlers (many of them Spanish) describe plants and animals in such unfathomable abundances, the likes of which we will never be able to return. But we can reclaim some of it. And after decades of witnessing severe declines in fish species, kelp, water quality and coastal habitat, it seems we may be finally turning a corner. Maybe.

Some of the projects underway include bringing back white sea bass, protection of sea lions, whales and dolphins under the Marine Mammal Protection Act, a rise in white shark populations, kelp restoration, and, perhaps the most significant achievement of all, the creation of a vast (and enforced), network of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs).

Alone, each of these efforts is a small step in the right direction in making our seas healthy and fruitful. Together, they represent the most significant set of achievements to reverse the impact of human settlement on the ocean environment in the history of the world. Of course, we are nowhere near done, and the growing (and terrifying) threats from climate change could render all of this moot. Warming seas, the spread of new diseases (and old ones), acidification, all these things together could unravel these accomplishments in mere decades.

There are still many challenges ahead. Recent kelp die-offs in Northern California due to the explosion in purple urchin populations are extremely worrisome. Phenomena like sea star wasting disease and the marine heatwave of 2013-2015 may have wrought permanent change to our marine ecosystem. But the fact that we are now acting so aggressively to apply science and ingenuity to solve the myriad problems we ourselves caused should give us some hope that positive change is possible.

There is no time for rest. If anything now is the time to redouble our efforts to make our oceans cleaner, to help species recover and to restore the lost balance so that future generations can experience the incredible beauty and bounty of the sea.

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Caltech Fly Labs and a Century of Genetic Discovery

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Few organisms in the history of science have been as important to our understanding of life as the humble fruit fly. The genus Drosophila melanogaster holds a particularly esteemed spot among the dozens of model organisms that provide insight into life’s inner workings. For more than 100 years, this tiny, but formidable creature has allowed scientists to unwind the infinitesimal mechanisms that make every living creature on the planet what it is.

And much of the work to understand the fruit fly has taken place and is taking place now, right here in California at the Cal Tech fly labs.

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Over the decades, Drosophila have been key in studying brain, behavior, development, flight mechanics, genetics, and more in many labs across the globe. These tiny, round-bodied, (usually) red-eyed flies might appear irrelevant, but their simplicity makes them ideal models. They’re easy to breed—mix males and females in a test tube, and in 10 days, you have new flies. Their 14,000-gene DNA sequence is relatively short, but extremely well-studied and there are some 8,000 genes which have human analogs. (The fly’s entire genome was fully sequenced in 2000.) Crucially, a century of fruit fly research, much of it led by Caltech, has produced genetic tools for precise genome manipulation and shed light on the act of flight itself.

But how did Drosophila become the darling of genetics?

In the early 20th century, the field of genetics was still in its infancy. Thomas Hunt Morgan, a biologist at Columbia University with a background in embryology and a penchant for skepticism began with an effort to find a simple, cheap, easy-to-breed model organism. At Columbia, he established a laboratory in room 613 of Schermerhorn Hall. This cramped space became famous for groundbreaking research in genetics, with Morgan making innovative use of the common fruit fly.

Thomas Hunt Morgan in the Fly Room at Columbia, 1922 (Cal Tech Archives)

Morgan, who joined Columbia University after teaching at Bryn Mawr College, chose the fruit fly for its ease of breeding and rapid reproduction cycle. Morgan observed a male fly with white eyes instead of the usual red. Curious about this trait’s inheritance, he conducted breeding experiments and discovered that eye color is linked to the X chromosome. He realized a male fly, with one X and one Y chromosome, inherits the white-eye trait from its mother, who provides the X chromosome. This led him to conclude that other traits might also be linked to chromosomes. His extensive experiments in this lab confirmed the chromosomal theory of inheritance, demonstrating that genes are located on chromosomes and that some genes are linked and inherited together.

After his groundbreaking research in genetics at Columbia University, Morgan moved to Pasadena and joined the faculty at CalTech in 1928, where he became the first chairman of its Biology Division and continued his influential work in the field of genetics establishing a strong genetics research program. Morgan’s work, supported by notable students like Alfred Sturtevant and Hermann Muller, laid the foundation for modern genetics and earned him the Nobel Prize in 1933.

CalTech then became a world center for genetics research using the fruit fly. Other notable names involved in fruit fly research at CalTech include Ed Lewis, a student of Morgan, who focused his research on the bithorax complex, a cluster of genes responsible for the development of body segments in Drosophila. His meticulous work over several decades revealed the existence of homeotic and Hox genes, which control the basic body plan of an organism (for which he won the 1995 Nobel Prize).

Novel prize winner Edward Lewis (Nobel Prize.org)

Seymour Benzer, another luminary at CalTech, shifted the focus from genes to behavior. Benzer’s innovative experiments in the 1960s and 1970s sought to understand how genes influence behavior. His work demonstrated that mutations in specific genes could affect circadian rhythms, courtship behaviors, and learning in fruit flies. Benzer’s approach was revolutionary, merging genetics with neurobiology and opening new avenues for exploring the genetic basis of behavior. His contributions are chronicled in Jonathan Weiner’s “Time, Love, Memory: A Great Biologist and His Quest for the Origins of Behavior,” a riveting account of Benzer’s quest to uncover the genetic roots of behavior. Lewis Wolpert in his review for the New York Times wrote, “Benzer has many gifts beyond cleverness. He has that special imagination and view of the world that makes a great scientist.”

Since Benzer’s retirement in 1991, new vanguard in genetics research has taken over at CalTech, which continues to be at the forefront of scientific discovery, driven by a new generation of researchers who are unraveling the complexities of the brain and behavior with unprecedented precision.

Elizabeth Hong is a rising star in biology, with her Hong lab investigating how the brain orders and encodes complex odors. Her research focuses on the olfactory system of Drosophila, which, despite its simplicity, shares many features with the olfactory systems of more complex organisms. Hong’s work involves mapping the synapses and neural circuits that process olfactory information, seeking to understand how different odors are represented in the brain and how these representations influence behavior. Her findings could have profound implications for understanding sensory processing and neural coding in general.

David Anderson, another prominent figure at Caltech, studies the neural mechanisms underlying emotions and behaviors. While much of Anderson’s work now focuses on mice as a model organism, the lab’s research explores how different neural circuits contribute to various emotional states, such as fear, aggression, and pleasure, essentially how emotions are encoded in the circuitry and chemistry of the brain, and how they control animal behavior. Using advanced techniques like optogenetics and calcium imaging, Anderson’s lab can manipulate specific neurons and observe the resulting changes in behavior. This work aims to bridge the gap between neural activity and complex emotional behaviors, providing insights into mental health disorders and potential therapeutic targets.

In 2018, the Anderson laboratory identified a cluster of just three neurons in the fly brain that controls a “threat display” — a specific set of behaviors male fruit flies exhibit when facing a male challenger. During a threat display, a fly will extend its wings, make quick, short lunges forward, and continually reorient itself to face the intruder.

California Institute of Technology (Photo: Erik Olsen)

Michael Dickinson is renowned for his studies on the biomechanics and neural control of flight in Drosophila. In the Dickenson Lab, researchers combine behavioral experiments with computational models and robotic simulations, seeking to understand how flies execute complex flight maneuvers with such precision. His work has broader applications in robotics and may inspire new designs for autonomous flying robots.

“He’s a highly original scientist,” Alexander Borst, a department director at the Max Planck Institute of Neurobiology in Germany, told the New York Times.

Dickinson’s investigations also delve into how sensory information is integrated and processed to guide flight behavior, offering insights into the general principles of motor control and sensory integration.

As science advances, Caltech’s Fly Lab’s remind us of the power of curiosity, perseverance, and the endless quest to uncover the mysteries of life. The tiny fruit fly, with its simple elegance, remains a powerful model organism, driving discoveries that illuminate the complexities of biology and behavior. Just recently, scientists (though not at CalTech) unveiled the first fully image of the fruit fly brain. Smaller than a poppy seed, the brain is an astonishingly complex tangle of 140,000 neurons, joined together by more than 490 feet of wiring.

In essence, the fruit fly remains a key to unlocking the wonders and intricacies of life, and in the Fly Labs at Caltech, that spirit of discovery thrives, ensuring that the legacy of Morgan, Lewis, Benzer, and their successors will continue to inspire generations of scientists to come.

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The current effort to bring back the white abalone is one of numerous projects underway in California to revive the state’s once-thriving marine environment.

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