Looking back at John McPhee’s Assembling California: A Journey through Geology and Time

Sierra Nevada Mountains and Hot Creek Geological Site (Erik Olsen)

California’s diverse landscapes, rich history, and abundant natural phenomena have inspired many scientific-themed popular books, ranging from John Steinbeck’s “The Log from the Sea of Cortez,” with its focus on marine biology, to Mary Austin’s “The Land of Little Rain,” a lyrical examination of California’s desert environment, not to mention the late Marc Reisner’s Cadillac Desert, an epic history of California’s contentious relationship with water. (I’ve read it twice.)

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But when it comes to exploring the state’s geology – its mountains, coastlines, and, most notably, its fault lines – few books can match the prowess and eloquence of John McPhee’s “Assembling California“. Part of his Pulitzer-winning series, “Annals of the Former World,” the book offers a comprehensive and accessible tour through the geological history of California, crafting a fascinating narrative that is as engaging as it is informative.

John McPhee is an acclaimed American writer and pioneer of creative nonfiction, renowned for his deeply researched and beautifully crafted works that often explore topics related to nature, science, and geography. A long-time staff writer for The New Yorker and the author of over 30 books, McPhee is celebrated for his ability to turn seemingly ordinary subjects—such as geology, oranges, or transportation—into compelling narratives. His distinctive style blends meticulous research with accessible, often poetic prose that has been widely immitated. I’ve read several of McPhee’s books and while some of the work can be hard going, I’m usually very satisfied once I’m done. Assembling California is, in my opinion, one of his best.

Here’s an excerpt:

An old VW bus is best off climbing the Sierra from the west. Often likened to a raised trapdoor, the Sierra has a long and planar western slope and—near the state line—a plunging escarpment facing east. The shape of the Sierra is also like an airfoil, or a woodshed, with its long sloping back and its sheer front. The nineteenth-century geologist Clarence King compared it to “a sea-wave”—a crested ocean roller about to break upon Nevada. The image of the trapdoor best serves the tectonics. Hinged somewhere beneath the Great Valley, and sharply faulted on its eastern face, the range began to rise only a very short geologic time ago—perhaps three million years, or four million years—and it is still rising, still active, continually at play with the Richter scale and occasionally driven by great earthquakes (Owens Valley, 1872). In geologic ages just before the uplift, volcanic andesite flows spread themselves over the terrain like butterscotch syrup over ice cream. Successive andesite flows filled in local landscapes and hardened flat upon them. As the trapdoor rises—as this immense crustal block, the Sierra Nevada, tilts upward—the andesite flows tilt with it, and to see them now in the roadcuts of the interstate is to see the angle of the uplift.
John McPhee in Assembling California

The Sierra Nevada, a massive mountain range stretching like a spine nearly the length of California, provides the central geological narrative in “Assembling California”. Known for its stark beauty and dramatic peaks, the Sierras are also a textbook example of the immense forces that shape our planet. (We’ve written and will continue to write about them.) McPhee masterfully explicates how tectonic activity shaped this terrain over millions of years, giving readers a sense of the awe-inspiring age and dynamism of the Earth.

A brief bit about the man: Born in 1931, McPhee studied at Princeton University and Cambridge, and his writing straddles diverse topics from basketball to nuclear energy. His primary strength lies in his ability to seamlessly interweave complex scientific principles with engrossing human stories (there’s always an interesting character and the heart of his work), making the intricate world of science both comprehensible and enjoyable to the lay reader. His skill and prolificacy have earned him numerous accolades, including the Pulitzer Prize.

Assembling California stands out for its illuminating journey through California’s intricate geological history. Traveling with the late geologist Eldridge Moores of the University of California Davis, McPhee unpacks the layered story of California’s geology from its seismic activity to its unique rock formations. There is an excellent excerpt in a 1992 issue of the New Yorker.

Moores was a renowned geologist known for his significant contributions to understanding the geological history and structure of the Earth, particularly in relation to plate tectonics. Born in 1938 in Phoenix, Arizona, he spent the bulk of his career as a professor of geology at Davis, where his research significantly advanced the theory of plate tectonics. He was particularly interested in the geology of his adopted home state, California. Moores also held the position of President of the Geological Society of America in 1996. Apart from his boundless energy, Moores’ real gift was his vision: his ability to “see” geologic history in a pile of rocks. His passionate teaching style and profound knowledge made him a beloved figure in the field of geology. Moores died in a tragic accident in 2018 while on a field trip in Greece, leaving a significant void in the geology world.

Moores explains to McPhee how the Sierra Nevada range didn’t just emerge from the Earth’s crust, as geologists long thought. Instead, the building blocks bubbled up from faraway rifts in the ocean floor called “spreading centers,” then transported thousands of miles on moving plates and piled up onto the North American continent.

Sierra Nevada Mountains and Owens River (Erik Olsen)

The movement of the Earth’s crust along fault lines, as in the well-known San Andreas Fault, is a central theme of the book. By explaining the shifting of tectonic plates, McPhee brings to life the reality of living in California: a landscape that is constantly, if imperceptibly, in motion. His descriptions of earthquakes, both historic and potential future ones, vividly underscore the seismic hazards associated with residing in the state. McPhee’s ability to humanize these impersonal geologic processes is a testament to his storytelling prowess. You will learn a lot about what happens to the California beneath your feet.

However, “Assembling California” is not just a tale of geological forces. McPhee also weaves in fascinating narratives about gold prospectors and vineyard owners, infusing the state’s human history into its ancient geological story. You really can’t tell the story of modern California without delving into the resource-driven economic narratives that are a fundamental part of the state’s history. We try to do a lot of that in this magazine.

For those who want to go beyond McPhee, another fine author is Simon Winchester, whose “Crack at the End of the World” picks up where McPhee left off, both in terms of theme and approach. Winchester, a British author and journalist known for his popular science writing, explores the devastating 1906 San Francisco earthquake. Like McPhee, Winchester expertly merges detailed geological explanations with human stories, providing a compelling account of one of the most significant natural disasters in American history. This is also a very fine book.

The legacy of “Assembling California” lies not just in its rich storytelling but also in the path it blazed for a new kind of popular science writing – one that’s engaging, comprehensive, and profoundly human. By understanding our planet’s past and the forces that shape it, we are better prepared to navigate its future. As readers, we owe a debt of gratitude to writers like McPhee and Winchester who, through their craft, help us appreciate the intricate dance between the Earth’s geological processes and human civilization.

Since McPhee wrote “Assembling California,” technology has made leaps and bounds in the field of geology. Advancements in technology like LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), which uses lasers to measure distances and can create high-resolution maps of the Earth’s surface, and improvements in seismograph technology and satellite imaging, have allowed scientists to study geological phenomena in greater detail and with better accuracy.

Geology, like all scientific disciplines, evolves over time as new techniques and technologies become available. This progress often refines our understanding of geological phenomena and can lead to new theories and models. We’re still learning a lot about how our state literally came together, with new research being done all the time that sheds light on our mountains, coasts and valleys.

More recent studies of the San Andreas Fault, for instance, have allowed us to better understand the fault’s behavior, including how frequently significant earthquakes occur and what triggers them. For example a 2022 study from Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory suggests that the San Andreas Fault moves slowly in a process called “creep,” which was previously thought to release tectonic stress and reduce earthquake risk. However, this new research suggests that this creeping segment might instead be accumulating stress, potentially leading to larger and more destructive earthquakes than previously anticipated.

Not exactly good news, but it’s always better to know what’s happening and to have science that backs it up, and McvPhee was a master at helping us understand he way the world works.

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Why Parkfield, California is the Nation’s Earthquake Capital

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When Big Joe Turner sang “Shake, Rattle and Roll,” he probably wasn’t thinking about a dusty little town in Central California, but in Parkfield, it’s practically the town motto.

Parkfield, California, is a quiet, dusty farming town tucked into the rolling hills of the Cholame Valley, just off Highway 46 (worth the drive if you ever have the chance). A few miles down the road lies an historic intersection, the place where James Dean was killed in a near head on collision crash in his Porsche 550 Spyder on September 30, 1955. The collision ended a blazing young career just as it was taking off and cemented Dean’s image as a tragic icon of American cinema. While tourists still visit the nearby memorial, Parkfield itself is better known to scientists than to star-watchers.

Parkfield is an unremarkable town, with one exception: it lies directly atop the San Andreas Fault and is known as the Earthquake Capital of the World. This is not because there are so many earthquakes there, although there are, but because it has one of the highest densities of seismic technology anywhere. In addition to the larger magnitude 6.0 earthquakes that tend to strike about every 22 years, Parkfield also experiences a steady rhythm of smaller quakes. These minor tremors, often below magnitude 1.0, happen with such regularity, that scientists have compared them to “seismic pulsars” for their consistent, almost clock-like behavior. (And for what it’s worth, Petrolia, California actually has the most earthquakes).

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The San Andreas Fault is one of the best known, and most active faults in the world. In the Parkfield area, the San Andreas Fault is constantly shifting—millimeter by millimeter, day by day. This continuous movement is unique to the region, as the fault remains relatively locked in both the northern section around San Francisco and the southern section near Palmdale. While the fault in these other areas stays immobile, the central part near Parkfield steadily creeps, creating a contrast that puts pressure on the locked sections to the north and south.

Parkfield’s main strip, stretching just a quarter mile, hosts a small collection of buildings, including a one-room elementary school, the USGS-Berkeley earthquake monitoring site, a Cal Fire station, and the Parkfield Cafe and Lodge. Outside the cafe, a row of mismatched mailboxes serves the dozen or so homes scattered along a few dirt roads branching off the main street. Parkfield might be a small, obscure town to most Californians, but to geologists fascinated by the workings of the Earth, it’s the epicenter of seismic research.

Every hillside and valley, grassy nook and riverbed is home to some kind of instrument that measures earthquakes. Over the years, these instruments have become more sophisticated and expensive, making it necessary in many cases to fence them off with the threat of arrest. These instruments monitor, hour by hour, or better, millisecond by millisecond, the stirrings of the earth. To geologists, it is ground zero for seismic measurement.

The town is proud of its reputation. A water tower boasts the tourism slogan: BE HERE WHEN IT HAPPENS (see photo). There is also an iron bridge in the town that has the distinction of standing astride the San Andreas Fault. One one side of the creek that runs beneath the bridge is the North American tectonic plate. On the other is the Pacific tectonic plate. Those two plates are moving south and north respectively at a rate of about 2 inches a year. As we all know, that movement creates immense pressure as the two plates seem otherwise locked in place. That pressure will have to be released at some point. It always has. When that happens, we can expect a potentially devastating earthquake that will rock the state from top to bottom.

The writer Simon Winchester calls the fault an “ever-evolving giant that slumbers lightly under the earth’s surface and stirs, dangerously and often, according to its own whims and its own rules.”

Since 1985, a focused earthquake prediction experiment has been in progress in Parkfield. Known as “The Parkfield Experiment“, the project’s stated purpose is to “better understand the physics of earthquakes — what actually happens on the fault and in the surrounding region before, during and after an earthquake.”

Since the mid-1980s, scientists have deployed an array of advanced monitoring devices, including seismometers, strainmeters, creepmeters, and GPS sensors, to capture detailed data on ground movement and strain accumulation. These instruments are designed to measure subtle changes in the Earth’s crust, helping researchers predict seismic events and understand the processes leading up to an earthquake. By continuously collecting data, the experiment has provided valuable insights into the mechanics of fault movement and the potential for earthquake prediction.

An art installation, known as the Parkfield Interventional EQ Fieldwork (PIEQF), used earthquake waves recorded by the USGS seismic network in California to trigger a hydraulic shake table which was installed in an excavated trench. (USGS)

Experts also once bored a 10,000-foot-deep hole into the ground in Parkfield, into which they placed a large array of sensors to measure the earth’s movements. The goal of the $300 million project, called the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth, or SAFOD, was to allow scientists to study how faults work and how earthquakes happen. The drilling stopped in 2007, but Parkfield remains a hot spot for geologic research.

Additionally, the Berkeley Seismological Laboratory operates the High-Resolution Seismic Network (HRSN) in the Parkfield area. This network comprises geophone arrays aimed at monitoring microseismicity along the San Andreas Fault, providing valuable data on the fault’s behavior.

Parkfield remains critical to better understanding seismic dangers in California. The fault zone is poorly understood at depth and so far, the predictability of earthquakes in the near term is pretty limited. But devices like these could help improve prediction, especially if there is a large quake. But that’s the rub, really. We need to experience a large earthquake to get the best data to know how to predict later ones. So it is in California.

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How Theodore Roosevelt’s 1903 trip to California gave birth to modern conservation

Theodore Roosevelt and John Muir in Yosemite. Credit: National Park Service

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Theodore Roosevelt is our hero.

The 26th President of the United States was a soldier, a historian, an amateur scientist, a best-selling writer, an avid outdoorsman and much much more. He has been called the “father of conservation,” because, as president, he authorized the creation of 150 national forests, 18 national monuments, 5 national parks, 4 national game preserves, and 51 federal bird reservations. We think he deserves the moniker.

*President Roosevelt and John Muir at the base of the Grizzly Giant.*
*Credit: Photographer: Joseph Nisbet LeConte; Yosemite NP Archives*

But many people may be unaware that TR has a very important California connection. 121 years ago, in 1903, just two years after becoming our nation’s youngest president at the age of forty-two, following the assassination of President William McKinley, Roosevelt embarked on one of the most important Presidential trips in the history of America.

In 1903, President Theodore Roosevelt embarked on a grand tour of the western United States. At the time, Roosevelt was already known for his passion for the outdoors and his desire to protect the nation’s natural resources. This trip would cement his legacy as a conservationist and lead to the expansion of America’s national parks.

The impact of his trip to California is still being felt today.

The trip, taken by railroad, took Roosevelt across the American continent. The 3,000-mile journey began in April from Washington D.C., and took TR through twenty-five states, and lasted nine weeks. He traveled through the American West and stopped at Yellowstone National Park for a hiking and camping trip with naturalist and essayist John Burroughs. He continued on and ended up touring a large swath of the state of California, including Yosemite, which had been declared a national park in 1890.

Yellowstone National Park (National Park Service)

It was a tenuous time for the American environment. Millions of buffalo had been slaughtered across the plains, often for sport, their carcasses left to rot in the sun. The passenger pigeon, a bird that once filled the skies by the billions, had been exterminated. But America was also in the midst of a nature renaissance, and Roosevelt was one of its pivotal figures. The impact of his trip to California is still felt today.

Millions of buffalo were slaughtered during the western expansion of the United States (Wikipedia)

In California, Teddy Roosevelt’s journey was a mix of official duties and personal exploration, reflecting his dual role as a statesman and an outdoorsman. After arriving in San Francisco, Roosevelt was greeted with great fanfare, delivering speeches to large crowds and meeting with local dignitaries. His visit to the city included a tour of its bustling port, symbolizing the growing importance of California as a gateway to the Pacific. Roosevelt also visited Stanford University, where he spoke about education, progress, and the future of the American West. His time in the urban centers highlighted California’s rapid development and its significance in the nation’s expansion.

However, the most profound part of Roosevelt’s time in California came during his visit to Yosemite National Park. He met with naturalist John Muir on May 15th, 1903. The meeting took place on a train in the dusty town of Raymond, California, the closest station to Yosemite. From there, the men traveled 40 miles (about 8 hours) by stagecoach, which gave them the opportunity to get acquainted. They stopped in Mariposa Grove, where TR saw his first sequoia and had his picture taken driving through the “Tunnel Tree,” which no longer stands.

That first night, President Roosevelt dismissed his aides and the press, which was unusual for him because he was a publicity hound. In the wilds of Yosemite, he and Muir spent three days “roughing it,” camping beneath the stars and enjoying conversation around a campfire. It was during those conversations that Muir made the case for the preservation of forests and other natural resources. Likely, these talks created the impetus for Roosevelt’s support for the 1906 Antiquities Act, arguably one of the most important pieces of conservation law in the United States. With the power to proclaim lands as monuments in the public interest, Roosevelt in 1908 set aside some 800,000 acres as Grand Canyon National Monument. Congress later gave it a national park status.

Arguably, no other President has had such a singular impact on protecting American lands, and it’s fair to say, we think, that his visit to California had a lot to do with it.

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Beyond the Beach: How Santa Monica Became Home to the RAND Corporation, America’s Premier Defense Think Tank

RAND’s current headquarters in Santa Monica (Erik Olsen)

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When people think of Santa Monica, images of sun-soaked beaches, the iconic pier, and leisurely strolls along the Pacific Coast Highway often come to mind. It’s a city synonymous with surf, sand, and a laid-back California lifestyle. Yet, bunkered within this seaside haven is an institution far removed from the carefree spirit of the shore: RAND Corporation, one of the world’s most influential think tanks, with deep ties to the Department of Defense. While tourists flock to the hot sands and the 3rd Street Promenade, behind the walls of RAND’s headquarters, some of the nation’s brightest minds have quietly shaped U.S. policy and technology for decades.

The RAND Corporation, originally an acronym for “Research ANd Development,” is a think tank that has had a profound impact on policy and decision-making in various fields, including national security, science, technology, and social policy.

RAND emerged from the devastation of World War II, inspired by the success of the Manhattan Project, a $2 billion effort that produced the first atomic bomb. Seeing this achievement, five-star Air Force General Henry “Hap” Arnold recognized the need for a group of brilliant minds to keep America at the forefront of technological innovation. In 1946, Arnold assembled a small team of scientists with $10 million in funding to create RAND, short for Research and Development. He persuaded a family friend, aircraft mogul Donald Douglas, to host the project at his factory in Santa Monica.

Air Force General Henry “Hap” Arnold (USAF)

Within months, RAND captured the attention of academics, politicians, and military leaders with its groundbreaking report, “Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship.” At a time when rocket science was in its infancy, the think tank’s vision of an orbiting space station was revolutionary. The report not only detailed the type of fuel needed and the feasibility of constructing the station but also highlighted its potential to revolutionize weather forecasting, long-distance communication, and most crucially, its ability to intimidate America’s adversaries. If America could launch a satellite into space, what else might it achieve?

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Although President Truman decided against pursuing the space station, the military quickly embraced RAND. Thanks to Hap Arnold’s connections, the Air Force became RAND’s primary contractor, and the think tank began consulting on a wide range of projects, from propeller turbines to missile defense systems. The influx of contracts soon overwhelmed RAND, prompting the need to hire hundreds of additional researchers. In its recruitment ads, RAND proudly highlighted its intellectual pedigree, even drawing a direct line from its president, Frank Collbohm, to Isaac Newton. Whether or not that claim held water, the institute rapidly earned a reputation as the go-to place for envisioning innovative strategies to wage wars and deter adversaries.

In fact, in 1960s the Soviet newspaper Pravda nicknamed RAND “the academy of science and death and destruction.” American media outlets preferred to call them the “wizards of Armageddon.” The Atlantic called them “the paramilitary academy of United States strategic thinking”.

RAND’s strategic theories, including the concept of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD), were born from the devastating potential of atomic weapons, aiming to prevent nuclear war through deterrence.

But where is RAND located? When RAND was first established in 1946, it was housed in a building provided by Donald Douglas at his aircraft factory in Santa Monica. However, as RAND grew, it eventually moved to its own dedicated headquarters.

In 1953, RAND moved to a new building on a site provided by the city of Santa Monica. This building was designed specifically for RAND’s needs and became a recognizable landmark near the beach. In 2004, RAND moved again to a newly constructed headquarters in Santa Monica, located at 1776 Main Street. This modern facility was designed to better accommodate RAND’s evolving research activities and staff. So while RAND has always been in Santa Monica, it has moved to different buildings over the years.

Hand-tinted photo of the original RAND building at 1700 Main Street in Santa Monica, California, circa 1960s
RAND Archives

During the early years, RAND’s work was heavily focused on military and defense issues, reflecting the geopolitical climate of the Cold War. One of RAND’s most significant early contributions was the development of game theory and its application to military strategy. Pioneers like John Nash, who would later win the Nobel Prize in Economics, conducted seminal work at RAND during this period.

RAND’s analysts played a crucial role in the development of nuclear strategy, including the doctrine of mutually assured destruction (MAD). The think tank’s work on systems analysis, a method for evaluating complex systems, became a cornerstone of U.S. defense planning. RAND’s analysts developed strategies for deterrence, nuclear war scenarios, and the implications of various levels of nuclear arsenals.

“This was a very smart bunch,” said Ellsberg, just before his death on June 16, 2023. “The smartest group of people I ever did associate with. It turns out, by the way, intelligence is not a very good guarantee of wisdom.”
Daniel Ellsberg

Two key figures at the time, Albert Wohlstetter and Herman Kahn, were both pivotal figures at the RAND Corporation, where they contributed significantly to the development of U.S. nuclear strategy during the Cold War. Wohlstetter, known for his rigorous and analytical approach, emphasized the importance of maintaining a credible deterrent to Soviet aggression, which he articulated in his influential work, “The Delicate Balance of Terror.” Herman Kahn, another RAND was renowned for his work on nuclear warfare scenarios and is often credited with popularizing the concept of “mutual assured destruction” (MAD).

Their paths intersected with Daniel Ellsberg, who also worked at RAND as an analyst. Ellsberg, who later became famous for leaking the Pentagon Papers, was influenced by both Wohlstetter’s strategic insights and Kahn’s scenarios, but the resulting plans for how America would manage a nuclear war with the Russians terrified Ellsberg. As he recounted in the Netflix Documentary Turning Point, Ellsberg revealed that serious plans at RAND estimated a nuclear war with Russia and China could result in 600 million casualties, highlighting the catastrophic consequences that were considered in Cold War strategic planning. These revelations, along with his evolving moral stance, eventually led Ellsberg to become a vocal critic of U.S. military policies.

“This was a very smart bunch,” said Ellsberg, before his death on June 16, 2023. “The smartest group of people I ever did associate with. It turns out, by the way, intelligence is not a very good guarantee of wisdom.”

By the 1960s, RAND began to diversify its research agenda. The think tank started to tackle a wider array of issues, including healthcare, education, and social policy. In 1968, RAND established the Health Insurance Experiment, a landmark study that explored the effects of different levels of health insurance coverage on medical spending and health outcomes. This study had a lasting impact on health policy and remains one of the largest and most comprehensive studies of its kind.

Although Silicon Valley is given most of the credit, RAND also contributed to the development of the internet. In the 1960s, RAND researchers, including Paul Baran, were instrumental in developing the concept of packet-switching networks, which later became a fundamental technology underlying the internet. The key idea (which Baran worked on with others) was to develop a communication system that could withstand potential disruptions, such as those caused by a nuclear attack. His concept of breaking data into small packets and routing them through a decentralized network was groundbreaking, ensuring that information could still be transmitted even if parts of the network were compromised.

Paul Baran presents his work at a RAND in 2009
Photo by Diane Baldwin/RAND

In the 1980s and 1990s, RAND continued to expand its global influence. The organization opened offices in Europe and started collaborating with international governments and institutions. RAND’s research began to encompass global security, international development, and global health issues. RAND also pioneered the study of terrorism in the 1970s, well before the United Nations had even defined the term. Today, the RAND Terrorism Chronology Database, tracking all terrorist acts since 1968, is a crucial resource for the military and government.

One notable area of RAND’s recent work is in the field of education. RAND has conducted extensive research on educational policies and practices, including studies on school choice, teacher effectiveness, and the impacts of educational technology.

Despite its many contributions, RAND has faced criticisms and challenges. Some have argued that the think tank’s close ties to the military and government agencies may bias its research. Others have pointed out that, like any large organization, RAND’s influence can sometimes lead to the prioritization of certain agendas over others.

A British MQ-9A Reaper operating over Afghanistan in 2009 (Wikipedia)

One of RAND’s more controversial recent activities involved its research on U.S. drone warfare. Critics have raised concerns that RAND’s analyses have sometimes downplayed the ethical and civilian impact of drone strikes, focusing instead on the strategic advantages for the U.S. military. This has sparked debates about whether RAND’s close ties to the Department of Defense might influence the objectivity of its findings, particularly in areas where the moral and humanitarian implications are significant.

As of the most recent data, RAND Corporation employs approximately 1,950 people, including researchers, analysts, and support staff. The think tank operates with an annual budget of around $390 million, funding a wide array of research projects across various disciplines, including national security, health, education, and more. These figures can fluctuate based on the specific projects and funding sources in any given year.

Despite concerns about its influence, the RAND Corporation has remained a significant player in policy research. Its ability to adapt and broaden its focus has helped it stay relevant over the years. RAND’s work continues to inform policies that affect many aspects of public life, reflecting the ongoing role of independent research in policy-making.

So the next time you take a trip to the beach, take a moment to consider that just a short distance from the waves, some of the nation’s most critical and controversial policy decisions are being shaped at RAND’s headquarters in Santa Monica.

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Caltech Fly Labs and a Century of Genetic Discovery

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Few organisms in the history of science have been as important to our understanding of life as the humble fruit fly. The genus Drosophila melanogaster holds a particularly esteemed spot among the dozens of model organisms that provide insight into life’s inner workings. For more than 100 years, this tiny, but formidable creature has allowed scientists to unwind the infinitesimal mechanisms that make every living creature on the planet what it is.

And much of the work to understand the fruit fly has taken place and is taking place now, right here in California at the Cal Tech fly labs.

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Over the decades, Drosophila have been key in studying brain, behavior, development, flight mechanics, genetics, and more in many labs across the globe. These tiny, round-bodied, (usually) red-eyed flies might appear irrelevant, but their simplicity makes them ideal models. They’re easy to breed—mix males and females in a test tube, and in 10 days, you have new flies. Their 14,000-gene DNA sequence is relatively short, but extremely well-studied and there are some 8,000 genes which have human analogs. (The fly’s entire genome was fully sequenced in 2000.) Crucially, a century of fruit fly research, much of it led by Caltech, has produced genetic tools for precise genome manipulation and shed light on the act of flight itself.

But how did Drosophila become the darling of genetics?

In the early 20th century, the field of genetics was still in its infancy. Thomas Hunt Morgan, a biologist at Columbia University with a background in embryology and a penchant for skepticism began with an effort to find a simple, cheap, easy-to-breed model organism. At Columbia, he established a laboratory in room 613 of Schermerhorn Hall. This cramped space became famous for groundbreaking research in genetics, with Morgan making innovative use of the common fruit fly.

Thomas Hunt Morgan in the Fly Room at Columbia, 1922 (Cal Tech Archives)

Morgan, who joined Columbia University after teaching at Bryn Mawr College, chose the fruit fly for its ease of breeding and rapid reproduction cycle. Morgan observed a male fly with white eyes instead of the usual red. Curious about this trait’s inheritance, he conducted breeding experiments and discovered that eye color is linked to the X chromosome. He realized a male fly, with one X and one Y chromosome, inherits the white-eye trait from its mother, who provides the X chromosome. This led him to conclude that other traits might also be linked to chromosomes. His extensive experiments in this lab confirmed the chromosomal theory of inheritance, demonstrating that genes are located on chromosomes and that some genes are linked and inherited together.

After his groundbreaking research in genetics at Columbia University, Morgan moved to Pasadena and joined the faculty at CalTech in 1928, where he became the first chairman of its Biology Division and continued his influential work in the field of genetics establishing a strong genetics research program. Morgan’s work, supported by notable students like Alfred Sturtevant and Hermann Muller, laid the foundation for modern genetics and earned him the Nobel Prize in 1933.

CalTech then became a world center for genetics research using the fruit fly. Other notable names involved in fruit fly research at CalTech include Ed Lewis, a student of Morgan, who focused his research on the bithorax complex, a cluster of genes responsible for the development of body segments in Drosophila. His meticulous work over several decades revealed the existence of homeotic and Hox genes, which control the basic body plan of an organism (for which he won the 1995 Nobel Prize).

Novel prize winner Edward Lewis (Nobel Prize.org)

Seymour Benzer, another luminary at CalTech, shifted the focus from genes to behavior. Benzer’s innovative experiments in the 1960s and 1970s sought to understand how genes influence behavior. His work demonstrated that mutations in specific genes could affect circadian rhythms, courtship behaviors, and learning in fruit flies. Benzer’s approach was revolutionary, merging genetics with neurobiology and opening new avenues for exploring the genetic basis of behavior. His contributions are chronicled in Jonathan Weiner’s “Time, Love, Memory: A Great Biologist and His Quest for the Origins of Behavior,” a riveting account of Benzer’s quest to uncover the genetic roots of behavior. Lewis Wolpert in his review for the New York Times wrote, “Benzer has many gifts beyond cleverness. He has that special imagination and view of the world that makes a great scientist.”

Since Benzer’s retirement in 1991, new vanguard in genetics research has taken over at CalTech, which continues to be at the forefront of scientific discovery, driven by a new generation of researchers who are unraveling the complexities of the brain and behavior with unprecedented precision.

Elizabeth Hong is a rising star in biology, with her Hong lab investigating how the brain orders and encodes complex odors. Her research focuses on the olfactory system of Drosophila, which, despite its simplicity, shares many features with the olfactory systems of more complex organisms. Hong’s work involves mapping the synapses and neural circuits that process olfactory information, seeking to understand how different odors are represented in the brain and how these representations influence behavior. Her findings could have profound implications for understanding sensory processing and neural coding in general.

David Anderson, another prominent figure at Caltech, studies the neural mechanisms underlying emotions and behaviors. While much of Anderson’s work now focuses on mice as a model organism, the lab’s research explores how different neural circuits contribute to various emotional states, such as fear, aggression, and pleasure, essentially how emotions are encoded in the circuitry and chemistry of the brain, and how they control animal behavior. Using advanced techniques like optogenetics and calcium imaging, Anderson’s lab can manipulate specific neurons and observe the resulting changes in behavior. This work aims to bridge the gap between neural activity and complex emotional behaviors, providing insights into mental health disorders and potential therapeutic targets.

In 2018, the Anderson laboratory identified a cluster of just three neurons in the fly brain that controls a “threat display” — a specific set of behaviors male fruit flies exhibit when facing a male challenger. During a threat display, a fly will extend its wings, make quick, short lunges forward, and continually reorient itself to face the intruder.

California Institute of Technology (Photo: Erik Olsen)

Michael Dickinson is renowned for his studies on the biomechanics and neural control of flight in Drosophila. In the Dickenson Lab, researchers combine behavioral experiments with computational models and robotic simulations, seeking to understand how flies execute complex flight maneuvers with such precision. His work has broader applications in robotics and may inspire new designs for autonomous flying robots.

“He’s a highly original scientist,” Alexander Borst, a department director at the Max Planck Institute of Neurobiology in Germany, told the New York Times.

Dickinson’s investigations also delve into how sensory information is integrated and processed to guide flight behavior, offering insights into the general principles of motor control and sensory integration.

As science advances, Caltech’s Fly Lab’s remind us of the power of curiosity, perseverance, and the endless quest to uncover the mysteries of life. The tiny fruit fly, with its simple elegance, remains a powerful model organism, driving discoveries that illuminate the complexities of biology and behavior. Just recently, scientists (though not at CalTech) unveiled the first fully image of the fruit fly brain. Smaller than a poppy seed, the brain is an astonishingly complex tangle of 140,000 neurons, joined together by more than 490 feet of wiring.

In essence, the fruit fly remains a key to unlocking the wonders and intricacies of life, and in the Fly Labs at Caltech, that spirit of discovery thrives, ensuring that the legacy of Morgan, Lewis, Benzer, and their successors will continue to inspire generations of scientists to come.

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California Coastline Teems with Whale Skeletons

A whale fall recorded off the Coast of California. (Photo: Ocean Exploration Trust/NOAA)

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In the depths of the ocean, when a whale dies, its carcass sinks to the seafloor, creating a unique and rich ecosystem known as a whale fall. Recently, scientists have discovered an extraordinary number of these whale falls off the coast of Los Angeles—over 60 skeletons, a number that surpasses the total found worldwide since 1977. This remarkable density of whale falls has turned the region into a hotspot for marine biologists and ecologists eager to study these deep-sea oases. A recent video (2019) from the Exploration Vessel (E/V) Nautilus captured the excitement as scientists came upon a whale fall on the Davidson Seamount off California.

(The Davidson Seamount, which we have written about before, is a hotbed of biological activity, a deep sea oasis of life, providing habitat for millions of creatures, including the famous gathering of brooding ocotpus (Muusoctopus robustus) known as the Octopus Garden, seen in video here.)

Whale falls provide a dramatic example of how death can foster life. When a whale carcass settles on the ocean floor, it becomes a feast for a variety of marine creatures. Initially, scavengers like hagfish, sharks, and crabs strip the soft tissues. Over time, the remaining bones support a succession of organisms, including bone-eating worms called Osedax, which bore into the bones and extract lipids. These processes can sustain life for decades, creating a complex and dynamic micro-ecosystem.

The discovery off Los Angeles is attributed to several factors. Detailed surveys of the area have been conducted, coupled with the region’s oxygen-poor waters, which slow decomposition and preserve the skeletons longer. Additionally, the lack of heavy sedimentation ensures that the whale bones remain exposed and easier to find. However, the proximity to busy shipping lanes raises concerns about the potential role of ship strikes in the high number of whale deaths.

Eric Terrill and Sophia Merrifield, oceanographers from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UCSD, led surveys in 2021 and 2023 to assess waste spread across 135 square miles of seafloor in the San Pedro Basin. This area, twice the size of Washington, D.C., and located about 15 miles offshore, was used as an industrial dumping ground in the early to mid-1900s. Many of the objects discovered during the survey were barrels containing the banned pesticide DDT and its toxic byproducts.

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Researchers consider it unlikely that the toxic waste and discarded weapons in the area are causing whale deaths. Instead, the high volume of ship traffic is a probable factor, as this area might see more whales killed by ship strikes compared to other regions. The Los Angeles and Long Beach ports, the two busiest in the United States, are located just northeast of the study site, with shipping lanes spreading throughout the area. Additionally, thousands of gray whales migrate through these waters each year, and blue whales regularly feed here, John Calambokidis, a marine biologist with Cascadia Research Collective, a nonprofit in Washington State, told The Atlantic.

Blue whale off the coast of Los Angeles (Photo: Erik Olsen)

Whale falls are crucial not only for the biodiversity they support but also for their role in carbon sequestration. When a whale dies and sinks, it transfers a significant amount of carbon to the deep sea, where it can be stored for centuries. This process helps mitigate the effects of climate change by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The impact is not huge, but scientists say it is significant.

The size of whales plays a significant role in the extent of these ecosystems. Blue whales, the largest animals on Earth, are now seen regularly off the coast. The population of blue whales off the coast of California (as well as Oregon, Washington and Alaska) is known as the Eastern North Pacific blue whale population. This group is one of the largest populations of blue whales globally and migrates between feeding grounds off the coast of California and breeding grounds in the tropical waters of the Pacific Ocean. Their massive bodies provide an abundant food source, supporting a greater diversity and number of species at whale fall sites.

(It should be noted that many articles and Web sites regularly claim that blue whales often reach 100 feet or more. That is false. It is unlikely any blue whale over 80 feet has plied California waters in modern history. John Calambokidis told California Curated that the persistent use of the 100-foot figure can be misleading, especially when the number is used as a reference to all blue whales.)

As many who spend time along the shore know, the waters off California are home to a variety of whale species, including blue whales, humpback whales, gray whales, and fin whales. Blue whale populations, although still endangered, have shown signs of recovery due to conservation efforts. Humpback whales, known for their acrobatic breaches and complex songs, undertake one of the longest migrations of any mammal, traveling between feeding grounds in the Arctic and breeding grounds in Mexico. Fin whales, the second-largest whale species, are also present in these waters, though their populations are also still recovering from historic whaling.

The newfound whale falls off Los Angeles offer a unique opportunity to study these deep-sea ecosystems in greater detail. Researchers are particularly interested in understanding the succession of species that colonize these sites and the overall impact on deep-sea biodiversity. Furthermore, studying whale falls can provide insights into the health of whale populations and the broader marine environment.

The discovery of whale falls in the deep sea reveals the remarkable interdependence of life in our oceans. These massive carcasses, sinking silently to the ocean floor, become rich oases that sustain a diverse array of creatures—from giant scavengers to microscopic bone-eating worms. This cycle of life and death highlights the ocean’s intricate balance, where even in the darkest depths, every organism contributes to a larger, interconnected web. Gaining a deeper understanding of these hidden processes is vital, not just for the sake of marine conservation, but for preserving the overall health and resilience of our planet’s ecosystems.

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Pasadena: City of Science

How Pasadena Became a Hub of Scientific Endeavor

Pasadena and Colorado Boulevard (Erik Olsen)

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Yeah, yeah, you know the Rose Bowl.

But Pasadena isn’t just about pretty streets and historic buildings—it’s also a powerhouse of scientific discovery. Tucked between its tree-lined avenues and old-town charm is a city buzzing with innovation, home to some of the most groundbreaking research and brilliant minds in the world. Ask Einstein.

All right. Let’s keep going. While the climate of Southern California, with its mild weather and clear skies, was advantageous for astronomical observations and outdoor research, the city’s location also played a role in attracting scientists and researchers seeking a desirable living environment. The pleasant climate and natural beauty of the region were significant draws for many. But the city also owes much of its scientific prestige to the Second World War, when the city emerged as a pivotal intellectual and manufacturing hub for aeronautics and space, driven by its strategic location, advanced research institutions like the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), and an influx of skilled labor. The region’s aerospace industry, including companies such as Hughes Aircraft, Douglas Aircraft, Lockheed and North American Aviation, all of which played a crucial role in producing military aircraft and pioneering advancements in aerospace technology. By the end of World War II, 60 to 70 percent of the American aerospace industry was located in Southern California;

Planetary Society Headquarters in Pasadena (Erik Olsen)

The scientific pedigree of Pasadena can be traced back to notable historical figures, among them the great Richard Feynman, a theoretical physicist known for his work in quantum mechanics and his Nobel Prize-winning contributions to quantum electrodynamics. Feynman was a long-time faculty member at the California Institute of Technology (Caltech) and left an indelible mark on both physics and science education.

In engineering, there is Theodore von Kármán, a Hungarian-American mathematician, aerospace engineer, and physicist, who is remembered for his pioneering work in aerodynamics and astronautics. He was responsible for crucial advances in aerodynamics characterizing supersonic and hypersonic airflow. He is best known for the von Kármán vortex street, a pattern of vortices caused by the unsteady separation of flow of a fluid around a cylinder, which has applications in meteorology, oceanography, and engineering. Von Kármán was also a key figure in the establishment of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), which is managed by Caltech (see below).

In the mid-20th century, Albert Einstein spent several winters at CalTech, further solidifying the city’s reputation as a center of scientific thought. During his stays from 1931 to 1933, Einstein delivered lectures and collaborated with some of the brightest minds in physics, which had a lasting impact on the scientific community in Pasadena and beyond.

Albert Einstein in Pasadena (CalTech Archives)

CalTech itself is a cornerstone of Pasadena’s scientific community. As one of the premier science and engineering institutes globally, it has been at the forefront of numerous breakthroughs in various fields including physics, biology, and engineering. The university is not only a powerhouse of innovation but also a nurturing ground for future scientists, evidenced by its association with 39 Nobel laureates.

Similarly, the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL), which is technically located in La Canada Flintridge (geographically), but has a Pasadena mailing address, is a unique collaboration between NASA and CalTech. JPL is the leading US center for the robotic exploration of the solar system. Its engineers and scientists have been behind some of the most successful interplanetary missions, including the Mars Rover landings, the Juno spacecraft currently exploring Jupiter, and the Voyager probes that have ventured beyond our solar system.

NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory (Erik Olsen)

Further enriching Pasadena’s scientific landscape is the Carnegie Observatories, part of the Carnegie Institution for Science. This establishment has been a pivotal site for astronomical discoveries since the early 20th century. Today, it continues to push the boundaries of astronomical science by managing some of the most advanced telescopes in the world and conducting cutting-edge research in cosmology and astrophysics.

Jupiter as captured by NASA JPL’s Juno spacecraft *(NASA/JPL-Caltech/SwRI/MSSS/David Marriott)*

Though in the mountains above Pasadena, the Mt. Wilson Observatory, founded by George Ellery Hale, was home to some of the world’s most powerful telescopes in the early 20th century, including the 60-inch and 100-inch Hooker telescopes. (See our feature). These instruments were integral to groundbreaking discoveries, such as Edwin Hubble’s revelation of the expanding universe, which was supported by data from Mt. Wilson’s telescopes.

The Planetary Society, also headquartered in Pasadena, adds to the city’s scientific aura. Co-founded by Carl Sagan, Bruce Murray, and Louis Friedman in 1980, this nonprofit organization advocates for space science and exploration. It engages the public and global community in space missions and the search for extraterrestrial life, demonstrating the city’s commitment to fostering a broader public understanding of science.

Pasadena’s prowess in scientific innovation is further amplified by the presence of numerous high-tech companies and startups that reside in the city. These range from aerospace giants to biotech firms, many of which collaborate closely with local institutions like CalTech and JPL. Moreover, incubators such as IdeaLab and Honeybee Robotics (there are numerous robotics companies…which I think we will do a stand alone story about in the future) have been instrumental in fostering a culture of innovation and entrepreneurship in the city. Founded in 1996 by Bill Gross, IdeaLab has helped launch companies that have had significant impacts on technology and science, from energy solutions to internet technologies.

Pasadena’s status as a city of science is not just rooted in its institutions but also in its history and the ongoing contributions of its residents and thinkers. The city continues to be a fertile ground for scientific discovery and technological innovation, reflecting a deep-seated culture that celebrates curiosity and the pursuit of knowledge. This environment not only attracts some of the brightest minds from around the globe but also supports them in pushing the boundaries of what is possible, making Pasadena a true city of science.

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