California’s Eye on the Cosmos: The SLAC-Built Camera That Will Time-Lapse the Universe

Images from the most powerful astronomical discovery machine ever created, and built in California

A breathtaking zoomed-in glimpse of the cosmos: this first image from the Vera C. Rubin Observatory reveals a deep field crowded with galaxies, offering just a taste of the observatory’s power to map the universe in unprecedented detail.
(Credit: NSF–DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory)

I woke up this morning to watch a much-anticipated press conference about the release of the first images from the Vera Rubin Telescope and Observatory. It left me flabbergasted: not just for what we saw today, but for what is still to come. The images weren’t just beautiful; they hinted at a decade of discovery that could reshape what we know about the cosmos.I just finished watching and have to catch my breath. What lies ahead is very, very exciting.

The first images released today mark the observatory’s “first light,” the ceremonial debut of a new telescope. These images are the result of decades of effort by a vast and diverse global team who together helped build one of the most advanced scientific instruments ever constructed. In the presser, Željko Ivezić, Director of the Rubin Observatory and the guy who revealed the first images, called it “the greatest astronomical discovery machine ever built.”

This image combines 678 separate images taken by NSF–DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory in just over seven hours of observing time. Combining many images in this way clearly reveals otherwise faint or invisible details, such as the clouds of gas and dust that comprise the Trifid nebula (top) and the Lagoon nebula, which are several thousand light-years away from Earth.
(Credit: NSF–DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory)

The images shown today are a mere hors d’oeuvre of what’s to come, and you could tell by the enthusiasm and giddiness of the scientists involved how excited they are about what lies ahead. Here’s a clip of Željko Ivezić as the presser ended. It made me laugh.

So, that first image you can see above. Check out the detail. What would normally be perceived as black, empty space to us star-gazing earthlings shows anything but. It shows that in each tiny patch of sky, if you look deep enough, galaxies and stars are out there blazing. If you know the famous Hubble Deep Field image, later expanded by NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope, you may already be aware that there is no such thing as empty sky. The universe contains so much stuff, it is truly impossible for our brains (or at least my brain) to comprehend. Vera Rubin will improve our understanding of what’s out there and what we’ve seen before by orders of magnitude.

This image captures a small section of NSF–DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory’s view of the Virgo Cluster, revealing both the grand scale and the faint details of this dynamic region of the cosmos. Bright stars from our own Milky Way shine in the foreground, while a sea of distant reddish galaxies speckle the background.
(Credit: NSF–DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory)

I’ve been following the Rubin Observatory for years, ever since I first spoke with engineers at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory about the digital camera they were building for a potential story for an episode of the PBS show NOVA that I produced (sadly, the production timeline ultimately didn’t work out). SLAC is one of California’s leading scientific institutions, known for groundbreaking work across fields from particle physics to astrophysics. (We wrote about it a while back.)

The night sky seen from inside the Vera Rubin Observatory (Credit: NSF–DOE Vera C. Rubin Observatory)

Now fully assembled atop Chile’s Cerro Pachón, the Vera C. Rubin Observatory is beginning its incredible and ambitious mission. Today’s presser focused on unveiling the first images captured by its groundbreaking camera, offering an early glimpse of the observatory’s vast potential. At the heart of the facility is SLAC’s creation: the world’s largest digital camera, a 3.2-gigapixel behemoth developed by the U.S. Department of Energy.

This extraordinary instrument is the central engine of the Legacy Survey of Space and Time (LSST), a decade-long sky survey designed to study dark energy, dark matter, and the changing night sky with unprecedented precision and frequency. We are essentially creating a decade-long time-lapse of the universe in detail that has never been captured before, revealing the dynamic cosmos in ways previously impossible. Over the course of ten years, it will catalog 37 billion individual astronomical objects, returning to observe each one every three nights to monitor changes, movements, and events across the sky. I want to learn more about how Artificial Intelligence and machine learning are being brought to bear to help scientists understand what they are seeing.

The camera, over 5 feet tall and weighing about three tons, took more than a decade to build. Its focal plane is 64 cm wide-roughly the size of a small coffee table-and consists of 189 custom-designed charge-coupled devices (CCDs) stitched together in a highly precise mosaic. These sensors operate at cryogenic temperatures to reduce noise and can detect the faintest cosmic light, comparable to spotting a candle from thousands of miles away.

The LSST Camera was moved from the summit clean room and attached to the camera rotator for the first time in February 2025. (Credit: RubinObs/NOIRLab/SLAC/DOE/NSF/AURA)

Rubin’s camera captures a massive 3.5-degree field of view-more than most telescopes can map in a single shot. That’s about seven times the area of the full moon. Each image takes just 15 seconds to capture and only two seconds to download. A single Rubin image contains roughly as much data as all the words The New York Times has published since 1851. The observatory will generate about 20 terabytes of raw data every night, which will be transmitted via a high-speed 600 Gbps link to processing centers in California, France, and the UK. The data will then be routed through SLAC’s U.S. Data Facility for full analysis.

The complete focal plane of the future LSST Camera is more than 2 feet wide and contains 189 individual sensors that will produce 3,200-megapixel images. Crews at SLAC have now taken the first images with it. Explore them in full resolution using the links at the bottom of the press release. (Credit: Jacqueline Orrell/SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory)

The images produced will be staggering in both detail and scale. Each exposure will be sharp enough to reveal distant galaxies, supernovae, near-Earth asteroids, and other transient cosmic phenomena in real time. By revisiting the same patches of sky repeatedly, the Rubin Observatory will produce an evolving map of the dynamic universe-something no previous observatory has achieved at this scale.

What sets Rubin apart from even the giants like Hubble or James Webb is its speed, scope, and focus on change over time. Where Hubble peers deeply at narrow regions of space and Webb focuses on the early universe in infrared, Rubin will cast a wide and persistent net, watching the night sky for what moves, vanishes, appears, or explodes. It’s designed not just to look, but to watch. Just imaging the kind of stuff we will see!

The LSST Camera’s imaging sensors are grouped into units called “rafts.” Twenty-one square rafts, each with nine sensors, will capture science images, while four smaller rafts with three sensors each handle focus and telescope alignment. (Credit: Farrin Abbott/SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory)

This means discoveries won’t just be about what is out there, but what happens out there. Astronomers expect Rubin to vastly expand our knowledge of dark matter by observing how mass distorts space through gravitational lensing. It will also help map dark energy by charting the expansion of the universe with unprecedented precision. Meanwhile, its real-time scanning will act as a planetary defense system, spotting potentially hazardous asteroids headed toward Earth.

But the magic lies in the possibility of the unexpected. Rubin may detect rare cosmic collisions, unknown types of supernovae, or entirely new classes of astronomical phenomena. Over ten years, it’s expected to generate more than 60 petabytes of data-more than any other optical astronomy project to date. Scientists across the globe are already preparing for the data deluge, building machine learning tools to help sift through the torrent of discovery.

And none of it would be possible without SLAC’s camera. A triumph of optics, engineering, and digital sensor technology, the camera is arguably one of the most complex and capable scientific instruments ever built. I don’t care if you’re a Canon or a Sony person, this is way beyond all that. It’s a monument to what happens when curiosity meets collaboration, with California’s innovation engine powering the view.

As first light filters through the Rubin Observatory’s massive mirror and into SLAC’s camera, we are entering a new era of astronomy-one where the universe is not just observed, but filmed, in exquisite, evolving detail. This camera won’t just capture stars. It will reveal how the universe dances.

Berkeley’s Cosmic Breakthrough and the Alvarez Discovery That Rewrote Earth’s History

Artist’s rendering of the colossal Chicxulub meteor hurtling toward Earth, moments before impact on the Yucatán Peninsula, an event that reshaped life on our planet 66 million years ago. (Erik Olsen)

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It is no coincidence that “Eureka” is the state motto of California. From its founding, the state has been a hub of groundbreaking discoveries, from the Gold Rush to advancements in space exploration, the rise of Silicon Valley and the development of modern computing, the development of seismic science, and the confirmation of the accelerating expansion of the universe. But one discovery made at the University of California, Berkeley, changed the way we see the world—or at least how it was almost destroyed, along with a huge part of life on the planet.

In 1977, Walter Alvarez arrived at Berkeley with rock samples from a small Italian town called Gubbio, unaware that they would help rewrite the history of life on Earth. He had spent years studying plate tectonics, but his father, Luis Alvarez, a Nobel Prize-winning physicist known for his unorthodox problem-solving at Berkeley, would propel him into a new kind of investigation, one deeply rooted in geology and Earth sciences. Their work led to one of the most significant scientific breakthroughs of the 20th century: the discovery that a massive meteorite impact was responsible for the extinction of the dinosaurs and much of life on Earth.

Luis and Walter Alvarez stand at the K–Pg boundary within the rock layers of a limestone outcrop near Gubbio, Italy, in 1981. This geological marker is linked to the asteroid impact that triggered the mass extinction 66 million years ago. (Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory)

The samples Walter had collected contained a puzzling clay layer sandwiched between older and younger limestone deposits. This clay was rich in iridium—an element rare on Earth’s surface. The discovery of such an unusually high concentration of iridium in a single layer of buried rock was perplexing. Given that iridium is far more common in extraterrestrial bodies than on Earth’s surface, its presence suggested an extraordinary event—one that had no precedent in scientific understanding at the time. The implications were staggering: if this iridium had arrived all at once, it pointed to a cataclysmic event unlike anything previously considered in Earth’s history. Although some scientists had speculated about meteor impacts, solid evidence was scarce.

Alvarez determined that this layer corresponded precisely to the Cretaceous-Paleogene (K-Pg) boundary (formerly called Cretaceous–Tertiary or K–T boundary), the geological marker of the mass extinction that eradicated the non-avian dinosaurs 66 million years ago. Scientists had long debated the cause of this catastrophe, proposing theories ranging from volcanic activity to gradual climate change. But the Alvarez team would introduce a radical new idea—one that required looking beyond Earth.

Layers of sediment at Stevns Klint, Denmark, showcasing the distinct K–Pg boundary. The dark clay layer, rich in iridium, marks the asteroid impact that led to the mass extinction of the dinosaurs 66 million years ago. (UNESCO)

Mass extinctions stand out so distinctly in the fossil record that the very structure of geological time is based on them. In 1841, geologist John Phillips divided life’s history into three chapters: the Paleozoic, or “ancient life”; the Mesozoic, or “middle life”; and the Cenozoic, or “new life.” These divisions were based on abrupt breaks in the fossil record, the most striking of which were the end-Permian extinction and the end-Cretaceous extinction, noted here. The fossils from these three eras were so different that Phillips originally believed they reflected separate acts of creation. Charles Lyell, one of the founders of modern geology, observed a “chasm” in the fossil record at the end of the Cretaceous period, where species such as belemnites, ammonites, and rudist bivalves vanished entirely. However, Lyell and later Charles Darwin dismissed these apparent sudden extinctions as mere gaps in the fossil record, preferring the idea of slow, gradual change (known as gradualism, versus catastrophism). Darwin famously compared the fossil record to a book where only scattered pages and fragments of lines had been preserved, making abrupt transitions appear more dramatic than they were.

Luis Alvarez was a physicist whose career had spanned a remarkable range of disciplines, from particle physics to aviation radar to Cold War forensics. He had a history of bold ideas, from using muon detectors to search for hidden chambers in pyramids to testing ballistic theories in the Kennedy assassination with watermelons. When Walter shared his perplexing stratigraphic findings, Luis proposed a novel method to measure how long the clay layer had taken to form: by analyzing its iridium content.

A fossilized ammonite, one of many marine species that vanished at the K–Pg boundary, marking a sharp “chasm” in the fossil record after the asteroid impact 66 million years ago. (Photo: Erik Olsen)

As discusses, Iridium is a rare element on Earth’s surface but is far more abundant in meteorites. Luis hypothesized that if the clay had accumulated slowly over thousands or millions of years, it would contain only tiny traces of iridium from cosmic dust. But if it had been deposited rapidly—perhaps by a single catastrophic event—it might show an anomalously high concentration of the element. He reached out to a Berkeley colleague, Frank Asaro, whose lab had the sophisticated equipment necessary for this kind of analysis.

Nine months after submitting their samples, Walter received a call. Asaro had found something extraordinary: the iridium levels in the clay layer were off the charts—orders of magnitude higher than expected. No one knew what to make of this. Was it a weird anomaly, or something more significant? Walter flew to Denmark to collect some late-Cretaceous sediments from a set of limestone cliffs known as Stevns Klint. At Stevns Klint, the end of the Cretaceous period shows up as a layer of clay that’s jet black and contains high amounts of organic material, including remnants of ancient marine life. When the stinky Danish samples were analyzed, they, too, revealed astronomical levels of iridium. A third set of samples, from the South Island of New Zealand, also showed an iridium “spike” right at the end of the Cretaceous. Luis, according to a colleague, reacted to the news “like a shark smelling blood”; he sensed the opportunity for a great discovery.

Stevns Klint’s towering white chalk cliffs stand as a dramatic testament to Earth’s history, preserving the thin, dark Fish Clay layer that marks the cataclysmic asteroid impact that ended the age of dinosaurs 66 million years ago. (UNESCO)

The Alvarezes batted around theories. But all the ones they could think of either didn’t fit the available data or were ruled out by further tests. Then, finally, after almost a year’s worth of dead ends, they arrived at the impact hypothesis. On an otherwise ordinary day sixty-six million years ago, an asteroid six miles wide collided with the Earth. Exploding on contact, it released energy on the order of a hundred million megatons of TNT, or more than a million of the most powerful H-bombs ever tested. Debris, including iridium from the pulverized asteroid, spread around the globe. Day turned to night, and temperatures plunged. A mass extinction ensued. Even groups that survived, like mammals and lizards, suffered dramatic die-offs in the aftermath. Who perished, and who survived, set the stage for the next 66 million years—including our own origin 300,000 years ago.

The Alvarezes wrote up the results from Gubbio and Stevns Klint and sent them, along with their proposed explanation, to Science. “I can remember working very hard to make that paper just as solid as it could possibly be,” Walter later recalled. Their paper, Extraterrestrial Cause for the Cretaceous-Tertiary Extinction, was published in June 1980. It generated enormous excitement, much of it beyond the bounds of paleontology, but it was also ridiculed by some who considered the idea far-fetched, if not ridiculous. Journals in disciplines ranging from clinical psychology to herpetology reported on the Alvarezes’ findings, and soon the idea of an end-Cretaceous asteroid was picked up by magazines like Time and Newsweek. In an essay in The New York Review of Books, the late American paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould quipped that linking dinosaurs—long an object of fascination—to a major cosmic event was “like a scheme a clever publisher might devise to ensure high readership.”

Inspired by the impact hypothesis, a group of astrophysicists led by Carl Sagan decided to try to model the effects of an all-out war and came up with the concept of “nuclear winter,” which, in turn, generated its own wave of media coverage. But as the discovery sank in among many professional paleontologists, the Alvarezes’ idea—and in many cases, the Alvarezes themselves—were met with hostility. “The apparent mass extinction is an artifact of statistics and poor understanding of the taxonomy,” one paleontologist told The New York Times. “The arrogance.”

Skepticism was immediate and intense. Paleontologists, geologists, and physicists debated the implications of the iridium anomaly. But as the search for supporting evidence intensified, the pieces of the puzzle began to fall into place. Shocked quartz, a telltale sign of high-energy impacts, was found at sites around the world. Soot deposits suggested massive wildfires had raged in the aftermath.

Artists rendering of T-rex and other dinosaurs prior to the impact of the asteroid (Erik Olsen)

In the early 1990s, conclusive evidence finally emerged. The Chicxulub crater, measuring roughly 180 kilometers across and buried under about half a mile of sediment in Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula, was identified as the likely impact site. Although it was first detected by Mexico’s state-run oil company (PEMEX) in the 1950s during geophysical surveys, core samples taken decades later clinched the identification of Chicxulub as the long-sought impact site linked to the mass extinction that ended the Cretaceous era.

One of the more intriguing (if not astounding) recent discoveries tied to the end-Cretaceous impact is a site called Tanis, located in North Dakota’s Hell Creek Formation. Discovered in 2019 by a team led by Robert DePalma and spotlighted in a New Yorker article, Tanis preserves a remarkable snapshot of what appears to be the immediate aftermath of the asteroid strike.

Tanis fossils (Image credit: Courtesy of Robert DePalma)

The sedimentary layers at Tanis indicate large waves—often called “seiche waves”—that may have surged inland in the immediate aftermath of the impact. They also contain countless tiny glass spherules that rained down after the explosion. Known as microtektites, these blobs form when molten rock is hurled into the atmosphere by an asteroid collision and solidifies as it falls back to Earth. The site appears to hold them by the millions. In some cases, fish fossils have been found with these glass droplets lodged in their gills—a striking testament to how suddenly life was disrupted.

Although still under investigation, Tanis has drawn attention for its exceptional level of detail, potentially capturing events that took place within mere hours of the impact. The precise interpretation of this site continues to spark controversy among researchers. There is also controversy about the broader cause of the mass extinction itself: the main competing hypothesis is that the colossal “Deccan” volcanic eruptions, in what would become India, spewed enough sulfur and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere to cause a dramatic climatic shift. However, the wave-like deposits, along with the abundant glass spherules, suggest a rapid and violent disturbance consistent with a massive asteroid strike. Researchers hope to learn more about the precise sequence of disasters that followed—tidal waves, intense firestorms, and global darkness—further fleshing out the story of how the world changed so drastically, so quickly.

Glass spherules from cosmic impacts—microtektites from Tanis, tiny relics of Earth’s violent encounters with space. (Image credit: Courtesy of Robert DePalma)

All said, today the Alvarez hypothesis is widely accepted as the leading explanation for the K-Pg mass extinction. Their contributions at UC Berkeley—widely recognized as one of the world’s preeminent public institutions—not only reshaped our understanding of Earth’s history but also changed how we perceive planetary hazards. The realization that cosmic collisions have shaped life’s trajectory has led to renewed interest in asteroid detection and planetary defense.

Walter and Luis Alvarez’s discovery was a testament to the power of interdisciplinary science and the willingness to follow unconventional ideas. Their pursuit of an extraterrestrial explanation for a terrestrial mystery reshaped paleontology, geology, and astrophysics. What began with a father and son pondering an ancient Italian rock layer ended in a revelation that forever changed how we understand the history of life—and its vulnerability to forces from beyond our world.

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Dark Parks in California Allow Us to Reconnect with the Universe

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Despite its vast expanse (over 163,000 square miles) California offers surprisingly few places where one can truly gaze upon the night sky in all its glory. Urban light pollution has dimmed the stars across much of the state, making it a rare treat to see more than a handful of celestial points on a clear night. In California’s largest metropolitan areas, like Los Angeles and the Bay Area, the glow from light pollution is so intense that the Milky Way is almost entirely washed out, leaving just the brightest planets and stars visible.

Of course, this is not just a California problem. It’s a sobering reality that underscores a serious global issue: as of 2016, due to artificial lighting, about one-third of humanity could no longer see the Milky Way. Yikes. The problem has only worsened as many cities switch to LED lighting. While LEDs have revolutionized how we light our world and reduced the cost of illumination compared to incandescent bulbs, they have also diminished our ability to see the stars.

Light pollution in Los Angeles as seen from Angeles National Forest (Photo: Erik Olsen)

All that light at night also messes with our lives, interfering with circadian rhythms, leading to sleep disorders, increased stress, and potential long-term health issues such as obesity and cardiovascular disease, according to studies. Artificial light also disrupts ecosystems, affecting nocturnal wildlife by altering their natural behaviors and migration patterns, and can lead to decreased biodiversity. In fact, scientific evidence suggests that artificial light at night has negative and deadly effects on many creatures, including amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, insects, and plants.

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Dark parks in California offer a refuge from light pollution, providing a glimpse into the cosmos that most urban dwellers rarely experience. These parks are sanctuaries for stargazers, astronomers, and anyone longing to witness the majesty of the night sky. Spend a night camping in the Eastern Sierra, and you will know what I mean. There are few experiences in the natural world as profound as gazing into a blanket of millions and billions of stars and pondering the number of other worlds that might exist in the cosmos (it’s pretty much guaranteed there’s more than one, more than just us).

If only there was an organized effort to create and protect areas where darkness reigns. Enter the DarkSky International.

DarkSky International (previously the International Dark-Sky Association), founded in 1988, is dedicated to combating light pollution and preserving night skies through advocacy, education, and promotion of responsible outdoor lighting practices. They designate Dark Sky Places, including parks, reserves, and communities that meet rigorous lighting standards. As of now, there are just two designated Dark Sky Parks in California (see below) and over 130 across the United States. The IDA also works with policymakers to develop lighting regulations, supports scientific research on light pollution, and raises public awareness about the benefits of preserving dark skies for human health, wildlife, and the environment.

Dark skies are categorized using the Bortle Dark-Sky Scale, a system developed by amateur astronomer John E. Bortle to measure how much light pollution affects the visibility of stars and celestial objects. The scale ranges from Class 1, where the sky is pristine and free from artificial light, to Class 9, where the glow of urban lights makes it nearly impossible to see even the brightest stars. In a Bortle Class 1 sky, found in the most remote wilderness areas, you can see the Milky Way as a bright, detailed arc across the sky, along with countless stars and deep-sky objects. By contrast, in a Bortle Class 9 sky, such as in the heart of Los Angeles or New York City, only the moon, a few planets, and a handful of the brightest stars are visible. This scale offers a standardized way for scientists, conservationists, and amateur stargazers to assess the impact of artificial lighting and advocate for the preservation of natural darkness.

The night sky has always been a source of wonder and inspiration. For centuries, humans have looked up at the stars to navigate, tell time, and dream. Dark skies allow us to see celestial phenomena such as meteor showers, the Milky Way, and distant planets. They also foster a connection to the universe, reminding us of our place in a vast and mysterious cosmos. Beyond their aesthetic and inspirational value, dark skies have practical benefits too. They aid scientific research, support wildlife, and even improve human health by regulating our circadian rhythms, say researchers.

Advances in technology have revolutionized astrophotography, enabling photographers to capture the night sky in unprecedented detail. High-sensitivity digital cameras, sophisticated telescopes, and powerful image processing software allow for breathtakingly detailed images of celestial phenomena, from the intricate structures of distant galaxies to the ethereal glow of the Milky Way. These advancements have also made time-lapse photography more accessible, leading to a surge in mesmerizing time-lapse videos of the night sky. These videos, widely shared online (I’ve watched scores of them), showcase the dynamic beauty of the cosmos as stars and planets traverse the heavens. They offer viewers an immersive experience that reveals the universe’s grandeur and motion in a way static images cannot. This booming genre draws in audiences and encourages a deeper appreciation for the night sky, as well as the technology that makes stunning visual storytelling possible. Which raises an odd and unsettling question: what does it mean when we can have a better experience of the night sky by looking at a screen than by looking up at the sky itself?

For a glimpse into the latest in astrophotography, the Milky Way Photographer of the Year awards showcase some of the genre’s best work. Now in its seventh year, the competition by Capture the Atlas highlights 25 stunning images selected from over 5,000 entries, offering breathtaking views of our star-studded galaxy from around the world.

But all is not lost dear California friends. Outside the blazing urban megalopolises of Los Angeles/San Diego and San Francisco/San Jose, California boasts numerous places where visitors can escape the pervasive glow of artificial light. Here are a few of the best:

1. Death Valley National Park: Known for its extreme conditions and vast desert landscapes, Death Valley is one of the darkest places in the United States. The park is one of the two designated dark parks in California and the only one in the state classified as a Gold Tier Dark Sky Park. Its remote location and low humidity create ideal conditions for stargazing.The top ranger suggestions for star gazing locations in Death Valley National Park are: Mesquite Flat Sand Dunes, Harmony Borax Works, Badwater Basin and Ubehebe Crater.

2. Joshua Tree National Park: Famous for its unique rock formations and Joshua trees, this park is also a haven for astronomy enthusiasts. This is the second of California’s official dark parks. The park’s rugged terrain and minimal light pollution offer excellent visibility of the night sky. There are four designated stargazing areas in the park. They are the parking lots of Quail Springs, Hidden Valley, Cap Rock, and Ryan Mountain.

Night skies ablaze with stars and the Milky Way in Joshua Tree National Park (Unsplash)

3. Anza-Borrego Desert State Park: As California’s largest state park, the 600,000-acre Anza-Borrego Desert State Park provides expansive desert vistas perfect for stargazing. The park is the third and final designated dark park in the state and hosts regular star parties and events to educate the public about the night sky. If you’re looking for a guided tour, check out the Borrego Night Sky Tours.

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4. Mount Shasta: If you’re able to go further north, Mount Shasta’s high elevation and clear skies make it a prime spot for observing the stars. The area’s natural beauty adds to the experience of a night under the stars. Everitt Vista Point and Bunny Flat at Mt. Shasta are prime spots for stargazing, along with Lake Siskiyou, Somes Bar, and Shafter Campground. Medicine Lake, near Lava Beds National Monument, also shines in this celestial line-up. Lake Siskiyou offers stunning reflections of the night sky, while Somes Bar and Shafter Campground are known for minimal light pollution and excellent visibility.

5. Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park: Stretching along the central coast, this park offers stunning views of the Pacific Ocean and a dark sky backdrop perfect for stargazing. The park’s coastal location can provide unique opportunities to see the stars reflected in the ocean below.

Pfeiffer Big Sur State Park (Photo: Reddit)

6. Mount Wilson Observatory: Perched atop a 1,740-meter peak in the San Gabriel Mountains, the Mount Wilson Observatory in Southern California, founded in 1904, boasts some of the largest telescopes available for public use. While primarily an educational venue, it offers an exceptional stargazing experience and a chance to delve into astronomy, appealing to both enthusiasts and experts. It’s just above Los Angeles, so, yeah, the skies aren’t that clear, but we have seen the Milky Way up there before. The observatory provides guided and self-guided tours year-round, making it an ideal destination for learning about the cosmos.

7. Oasis. Said to be the darkest place in California, this tiny little farming town tucked in between Death Valley National Park and the Nevada state line is the gateway to some of the best night gazing skies in the California desert. There’s a whole lot of wild area to the south, between Oasis and Ubehebe Crater in DVNP, that boasts skies as dark as any in the United States.

Dark parks in California, like Death Valley National Park and Anza-Borrego Desert State Park, offer incredible opportunities to reflect on your place in the cosmos. Beneath the inky blackness of a truly dark sky, the Milky Way stretches across the heavens in astonishing detail, and countless stars shimmer with a clarity that feels almost unreal. Just think about this for a moment: The Milky Way galaxy is home to an estimated 100 to 400 billion stars. And that’s just one galaxy! There are estimated to be between 100 billion and 2 trillion other galaxies out there. I mean, what?! It’s a scale so vast it’s almost impossible to comprehend.

And that’s what makes light pollution so sad and tragic. While we gain comfort and protection in our cities, the light we generate robs us of the chance to truly grasp our place in the universe. We are so small, and yet, as far as we know, we’re the only life out there. That’s a lot more thought-provoking than any Marvel movie (no offense to Marvel fans).

It’s true that the profound experience of stargazing fosters a deeper connection to the natural world and our place within it, reminding us of the wonder and mystery that lie beyond our planet. These are important things to remember. We owe it to ourselves to occasionally step away from the glow of our homes and cities and stand beneath a truly dark sky, where the universe stretches out above in a breathtaking display. In moments of reflection, we appreciate the invaluable gift of darkness, which not only preserves the nocturnal environment but also fuels our curiosity and sense of wonder—just as it has for our ancestors for thousands of years. By celebrating and protecting these dark parks, we ensure that future generations can continue to gaze up in awe, finding inspiration in the endless expanse of the cosmos.

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JPL and the Voyager Golden Record: Humanity’s A Cosmic Mixtape in Space

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The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in La Canada Flintridge, California is well-known for building and sending spacecraft far into the cosmos to help us better understand the universe. But the agency was also extensively involved in one of the most ambitious and symbolic projects in the history of space exploration, one that in many ways was more art than science: the Voyager Golden Record.

In 1977, as the twin Voyager spacecraft prepared to journey beyond the confines of our solar system, they carried with them what might be the most profound artifacts ever created by humanity: the Voyager Golden Records. These records, designed to last a billion years, are time capsules intended not for Earthlings but for potential extraterrestrial finders or future humans. Engraved in gold-plated copper discs, the records encapsulate the Earth’s diverse cultural and natural heritage—from music to languages to sounds of nature.

The idea of the Golden Record was developed by a talented team led by Carl Sagan, the renowned astronomer and science communicator. Sagan, alongside other prominent figures such as Frank Drake, Ann Druyan, science journalist Jon Lomberg, and Linda Salzman Sagan, crafted a selection that aimed to represent the entirety of Earth. The content ranged from classical music by Bach and Beethoven to greetings in 55 languages, natural sounds like thunderstorms and whales, and a diverse set of 115 images depicting life and culture on Earth.

But producing a record that could survive the harsh environment of space, while also being understandable and playable by beings of unknown technology, posed unique challenges. This is where the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) stepped in, playing a pivotal role in transforming this ambitious vision into a tangible, durable artifact capable of traversing the cosmos.

Inspection of the engraving of the Voyager Golden Record.
Photo: NASA/JPL-Cal Tech

JPL, managed by Caltech under a NASA contract, was primarily responsible for the construction and operation of the Voyager spacecraft. Their expertise was crucial not just in the scientific instrumentation and engineering of the spacecraft but also in integrating the Golden Records. The lab’s engineers worked meticulously to ensure that the records were equipped with everything needed for potential playback: a cartridge, a needle, and symbolic instructions detailing their use. These instructions, etched onto the record’s cover, provided a universal map indicating Earth’s location in relation to pulsar stars, which are highly stable and can be used as galactic landmarks.

JPL’s involvement extended to the actual physical preparation of the records. They coordinated closely with RCA Records to produce the master disc from which the Voyager records were replicated. The final products were then plated in gold and encased in a protective aluminum jacket, designed to withstand the vacuum of space, cosmic rays, and extreme temperatures.

The technical contributions of JPL ensured that the Golden Records were not only a feat of cultural expression but also a marvel of scientific and engineering ingenuity. By equipping the Voyager spacecraft with these messages, JPL helped bridge the human desire to explore and communicate with the tangible reality of space travel. The records, mounted aboard Voyagers 1 and 2, continue to be ambassadors of Earth, carrying sounds, music, and images intended to convey the story of our world to whoever, or whatever, might find them.

Today, both Voyager spacecraft, with their Golden Records, have entered interstellar space, marking them as the most distant human-made objects in existence. They serve as reminders of humanity’s ambition to reach beyond our immediate grasp and to communicate across vast cosmic distances. JPL’s role in this historic endeavor highlights the profound connection between human creativity and technological advancement, ensuring that our message to the cosmos will endure long after the original voices have faded.

JPL written on the Voyager Golden Record
Photo: NASA/JPL-Cal Tech

As these records voyage through the cosmos, they remind us not just of where we have been, but also of the far reaches that our curiosity can take us. Through the combined efforts of visionaries like Carl Sagan and the engineering prowess of JPL, the Voyager Golden Record stands as a testament to the best of human knowledge, culture, and technological achievement.

The Voyager Golden Records are phonograph records, much like the vinyl records used to listen to music before digital media became widespread. They are constructed from copper discs coated in gold to withstand the harsh environment of space. Each record is encased in a protective aluminum jacket, along with a cartridge and a needle. Instructions in symbolic language explain the origin of the spacecraft and indicate how the record should be played. The playback speed (16 2/3 revolutions per minute) is much slower than typical records, which typically spin at 33 1/3 or 45 rpm.

The content of the Golden Record is a meticulously curated selection intended to represent the diversity of life and culture on Earth:

Sounds of Earth: The records include audio of nature sounds like thunder, wind, and animals (including the songs of birds and whales). Human sounds like footsteps, a heartbeat, and laughter are also embedded, capturing the biological and social essence of Earth.

The DNA structure magnified, light hit image is one of the pictures electronically placed on the phonograph records which are carried onboard the Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft. Credit: Jon Lomberg

Musical Selections: There are 27 musical tracks from different cultures and eras, ranging from classical pieces by Bach and Beethoven to traditional songs from various cultures, including a Navajo chant and a Peruvian wedding song. These selections were intended to showcase the diversity of musical expression on Earth.

Greetings in 55 Languages: A variety of spoken greetings from “Hello” in English to ancient languages like Akkadian. The inclusion of a broad range of languages aims to depict the linguistic diversity of humanity.

Images: The record also contains 115 analog-encoded photographs and diagrams. These images show a wide range of subjects, including humans of different sexes and races, everyday activities, scientific knowledge like mathematical definitions, and the Solar System. The intent was to offer a visual summary of our planet and its inhabitants.

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Message from the UN Secretary-General and the President of the United States: There are also printed messages from prominent global leaders at the time, including U.S. President Jimmy Carter and United Nations Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim.

Sounds of Human Origin: Beyond natural and environmental sounds, the record also includes a montage of the sounds of Earth, a screaming chimpanzee, a medley of human-originated noises like tools, vehicles, and a kiss, among others.

The idea behind the Voyager Golden Record is not just to communicate where and who we are but also to share a message of hope and peace with any possible recipient, even if that recipient is far in the future. The chances of the Voyager spacecraft actually being found by extraterrestrial life are slim, but the Golden Record serves as a profound gesture of goodwill and a testament to the human spirit’s longing to reach out and explore the universe.

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Journey to the Iron Giant: NASA’s Psyche Mission Could Unlock the Secrets of a Metallic World

The Psyche spacecraft in the clean room of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory in La Canada Flintridge, CA

A NOVEL PROPULSION SYSTEM WILL TAKE US TO A MASSIVE METAL ASTEROID IN DEEP SPACE

Imagine being able to move your car with your breath. One long blow out the back window, and your car begins speeding down the highway. Now imagine that if you keep blowing, your car accelerates to over 124,000 miles per hour.

Of course, if you actually did this on Earth, you would turn blue in the face and your car would remain still. But in the vast vacuum of empty space where there is little gravity and no atmospheric drag, that tiny amount of thrust can be very effective.

On October 12, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in La Cañada Flintridge will launch a spacecraft toward Mars and Saturn that will put this idea to the test. The agency is sending a 3,600-pound vehicle into space propelled by futuristic solar electric thrusters that deliver a force equivalent to the mass of about two quarters. They also happen to emit a cool blue glow that looks like something out of Blade Runner.

The Hall Thruster’s eerie blue glow is due to it’s emission of Xenon gas

The spacecraft, called Psyche, launched aboard a SpaceX Falcon Heavy rocket from the historic Launch Complex 39 at NASA’s Kennedy Space Center. The spacecraft will initially be set on a trajectory to fly by Mars, where it will receive a gravity assist, catapulting it further out into the solar system. In late 2026, the spacecraft will enter into orbit around a rare metal asteroid called Psyche 16 (hence the spacecraft’s name). The journey to the asteroid will take over three and a half years and cover over 1.5 billion miles.

Perhaps the most intriguing — and ultimately beneficial — components of the Psyche mission will be its use of solar electric thrusters. Also known as Hall Effect thrusters, the novel propellant system was designed to be efficient and cost-effective. Solar energy will be generated from a five-panel, cross-shaped solar array that will unfold and immediately begin harvesting energy from the sun. At 800 square feet, they are the largest panels ever installed at JPL, and when fully deployed, will extend about the area of a singles tennis court.

The resulting energy will be used to turn xenon, a dense, colorless, odorless noble gas into xenon ions, atoms that carry a charge because the number of electrons does not equal the number of protons. Xenon is found in Earth’s atmosphere in trace amounts and is used in car headlights and plasma TVs. As the xenon ions are accelerated out of the thruster, they create thrust, propelling the spacecraft forward. The amount of thrust, however, will be minuscule compared to that of chemical-based propulsion systems normally employed on missions like those to Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn.

”They operate at a low thrust level,” says David Oh, Psyche’s project system engineering manager. “You can’t use it to launch from the earth. But in space, you operate these thrusters over a long period of time and you can get to very high speeds.”

Psyche spacecraft inside the NASA JPL clean room (Erik Olsen)

In other words, in space, a force equivalent to a hastily expelled deep breath is enough to move a ton and a half of metal through space at a speed more than one hundred times that of a fired bullet.

Psyche will carry over 1000 kilograms of xenon in its tanks, more than enough to get the spacecraft to Psyche and complete its 21-month mission. JPL engineers estimate that the spacecraft would burn through about 15 times that amount of propellant by weight if it had to use traditional chemical thrusters.

“We did try conventional chemical propulsion, and we determined if we did that, we would have quadrupled the mass of the spacecraft. It would have been very difficult to launch and very expensive to build. But this technology was mature and ready to go,” says Oh.

This is not the first time an ion propulsion system has been used in space. Communication satellites orbiting the earth use them regularly. Colorado-based company Maxar Technologies developed and built the Hall thrusters for near-earth orbit, and NASA has purchased them from the company and made some modifications, but this will be the first time they will be used to venture into deep space.

“We needed advanced propulsion to get into orbit. We were looking at what could we buy rather than building our own thruster from scratch,” says Oh.

Because they’re so efficient, Psyche’s Hall thrusters can operate nearly nonstop for years without running out of fuel, says Oh. When its mission is over, the spacecraft might have lots of fuel left over, and they will have to decide whether to find other puzzles to solve. If the mission proves a success, Psyche’s Hall thrusters could play a major role in propelling future missions into deep space.

A Metal Asteroid?

Scientists are giddy at what they might find once Psyche, propelled by the Hall Thruster system, arrives at the asteroid.

“It’s a kind of world that humans have never visited before,” says Arizona State University’s Lindy Elkins-Tanton, principal investigator in charge of the mission. “Most of the exploration we do is going and learning more about a body we’ve already visited. Psyche, we have no photos of it, no one has ever done a flyby or really studied it. It’s unlike every asteroid we know, as far as we can tell.”

Astronomers have been aware of Psyche’s existence ever since since it was first discovered on March 17, 1852, by the Italian astronomer Annibale de Gasparis. The asteroid, computer models of which resemble a potato, was named after the Greek mythological figure Psyche, the goddess of the soul. It is the largest and most massive of the known M-type asteroids (M stands for metal), and is one of a dozen of the most massive objects in the asteroid belt between Mars and Saturn.

Scientists believe that Psyche may be part of the core of a body called an early planetesimal—, a moon-sized type of protoplanet that may have once been much larger, but was perhaps struck many years ago by other heavy orbiting objects, shattering it into pieces, but leaving this particular blob of metal and rock behind. Such collisions were common when the early solar system was forming.

If Psyche was once the heart of a planet with a strong convective current and a molten iron-nickel core at its center, then scientists expect it will still have a magnetic field. A magnetometer aboard the spacecraft will measure its pull, while cameras will photograph and map the surface, collecting high-resolution multispectral images. Because of the asteroid’s unique composition, scientists have no idea what to expect when the images first start rolling in.

“What does an impact crater into metal look like? We do not know?” says Elkins-Tanton.

In a unique twist for this mission, JPL plans to release the images captured by Psyche immediately onto the internet so that anyone can view them within a half-hour of being received.

“We’re not going to edit them or curate them. We’re going to send them out so that everyone can be looking at this funny object for the first time,” says Elkins-Tanton.

In addition, a series of spectrometers will help us understand what the asteroid is made of by measuring the gamma rays and neutrons emitted from it. Depending on what scientists discover, the mission could help answer fundamental questions about the formation of our solar system.

That will depend, of course, on whether the propulsion system functions as designed. As we stand on the precipice of a new era in space exploration, Hall thrusters aren’t just rocket science—they’re the closest thing we have to cosmic alchemy, promising to redefine how we navigate the vast tapestry of our solar system.

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Mt. Wilson Observatory in Los Angeles is a Celestial Time Capsule

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Perched atop a lofty peak in the San Gabriel Mountains of California sits a historic treasure, one of the great astronomical tools of the 20th century: the Mt. Wilson Observatory. For more than 100 years, it has been a centerpiece for major astronomical discoveries, playing a pivotal role in our understanding of the universe. The observatory, with its rich history shaped by devoted scientists, advanced technology, and revolutionary discoveries, stands as a testament to humanity’s relentless pursuit of knowledge.

The story of the Mt. Wilson Observatory begins with the visionary astronomer George Ellery Hale. Recognizing the importance of location, Hale selected Mt. Wilson for its elevation of 5,710 feet and its proximity to the Pacific Ocean, which provided consistently stable, clear skies—perfect conditions for astronomical observations. In 1904, he installed the first telescope at the site, the Snow Solar Telescope, specifically designed for studying the Sun. This telescope marked the beginning of groundbreaking solar research at the observatory and set the stage for future advancements in astronomy.

Many brilliant minds walked the halls and explored domes of Mt. Wilson, but few shone as brightly as Edwin Hubble. In the 1920s, using the Hooker Telescope – then the largest in the world – Hubble made two groundbreaking discoveries:

Before Hubble’s observations at Mt. Wilson, the prevailing belief was that our galaxy, the Milky Way, constituted the entirety of the universe. The existence of other galaxies was not yet confirmed, and what we now know as galaxies were often referred to as “nebulae” and thought to be part of the Milky Way.

Hubble’s groundbreaking discovery in 1923-1924, using the 100-inch Hooker telescope at Mt. Wilson, revealed that the Andromeda Nebula (now known as the Andromeda Galaxy) was far beyond the Milky Way, providing the first concrete evidence that the universe extended far beyond our own galaxy. This discovery fundamentally altered our understanding of the cosmos, leading to the realization that the universe is vast and filled with countless galaxies.

Using the powerful Hooker telescope once again, Hubble carefully observed distant galaxies and made a groundbreaking discovery: these galaxies were moving away from us. Even more astonishing was that the farther a galaxy was, the faster it was receding. This finding provided clear evidence that the universe itself was expanding. Hubble’s revelation shattered the long-held belief in a static universe and laid the groundwork for the Big Bang theory, suggesting that the universe had a specific beginning and has been expanding ever since. Through Hubble’s meticulous observations, humanity gained a new understanding of a dynamic, ever-evolving cosmos, far more vast and mysterious than anyone had previously imagined.

Many other scientists have also made major discoveries at Mt. Wilson. One luminary, Harlow Shapley, used the observatory to gauge more specifically our place in the Milky Way. Before Shapley, Earth was believed to be at the galaxy’s center. However, through his observations of globular clusters, he pinpointed our more humble location on a distant spiral arm.

Another notable scientists who made significant contributions at Mt. Wilson Observatory was Walter Baade. Baade, a German-American astronomer, played a key role in refining our understanding of the universe by studying stars in different populations. During World War II, when Los Angeles experienced blackout conditions, Baade took advantage of the clearer skies at Mt. Wilson to observe celestial objects with unprecedented clarity. He discovered that there were two distinct types of stars in the Milky Way, which led to the realization that galaxies had different stellar populations. This breakthrough allowed Baade to correct the scale of the universe, doubling the previously estimated size of galaxies and distances to them. His work helped refine Hubble’s expanding universe theory and provided a deeper understanding of the evolutionary stages of stars. Baade’s observations were critical in the advancement of modern cosmology and our comprehension of the vastness of space.

Instruments of Enlightenment

Over the years, Mt. Wilson has housed a suite of powerful telescopes:

The Hooker Telescope: At 100-inches, it was the world’s largest when it was installed in 1917. It’s the very instrument Hubble used for his revolutionary work.
The Snow Solar Telescope: The observatory’s inaugural instrument remains crucial for solar studies.
The CHARA Array: The Center for High Angular Resolution Astronomy array is an impressive configuration of six telescopes that function as an interferometer. It allows for sharper images of stars than even the Hubble Space Telescope. The CHARA Array has a spatial resolution equivalent to a single telescope 331 meters (over 1000 ft) in diameter. Light from each of the six telescopes is transported through fiber optics to a special beam-combining room.

Not only has Mt. Wilson been instrumental in observing distant stars, but it also has a unique device: the Snow Horizontal Solar Telescope. This apparatus, combined with the spectrograph, was used to study the sun’s magnetic fields. It has since been fundamental in understanding solar cycles and the impact of solar phenomena on Earth’s climate.

In 2020, the Bobcat Fire, the second largest fire on record in Los Angeles County to date, burned over 115,000 acres and was active for more than three months. Annually, the team at Mount Wilson Observatory takes measures against potential forest fires, removing fire-hazardous invasive plants and ensuring their extensive water tanks are full for the fire suppression system. Just a few months prior to the blaze, they had fitted new high-capacity hydrants. These proactive steps played a pivotal role in safeguarding the Observatory when the Bobcat Fire flames approached within a mere 20 feet of its perimeter. A dozen fire squads, each consisting of 40 to 50 firefighters from various units, tirelessly worked day and night to protect this cherished landmark.

Scene at Mt. Wilson after the 2020 Bobcat Fire (Erik Olsen)

Visitors to the Mt. Wilson Observatory have a rare chance to not only tour the grounds but also look through the same telescopes that revolutionized astronomy. Public “Telescope Nights” offer the exciting opportunity to observe the night sky through the famous 60-inch or 100-inch telescopes, the latter being the largest in the world open to the public. These sessions allow people to view celestial objects like planets, star clusters, and nebulae in stunning detail. Reservations are necessary for these events, as spots fill up quickly due to high demand. Additionally, private group sessions and special events can be arranged, providing an unforgettable, up-close experience with the universe. Guided tours are also available for those who want to dive into the observatory’s rich history, tracing the steps of astronomers who made some of the greatest discoveries of the 20th century.

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Mars helicopter Ingenuity is ready for its “Wright Brothers” moment

If all goes well, in late July, NASA will do something it’s never done before. The agency will launch a new mission to Mars with the aim of landing a small helicopter on the surface that will perform several test missions to see if we can fly on the surface of the Red Planet.

This is not an easy task, but it will be massively historic.

“This is very analogous to the Wright brothers moment, but on another planet,” MiMi Aung, the project manager of the Mars helicopter told the New York Times.

The helicopter will be aboard the Perseverance, the fifth robotic rover NASA has sent to Mars. The copter and the rover were both designed and built at at at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in La Canada Flintridge. The project has been in development over the past six years.

If successful, the small helicopter will initiate a new era for robotic exploration, with the opportunity to get an aerial view of Mars and possibly other worlds in the solar system.

Flying on Mars is not the same as doing so here on earth. There is little atmosphere on Mars, and so taking off requires more power and larger helicopter blades than here on earth. In fact, the atmosphere on the red planet is just 1/100th as dense as Earth’s. Scientists say that flying on Mars is the same as flying at an altitude of 100,000 feet on Earth. That’s three Mount Everests. No helicopter on earth has ever flown higher than 45,000 feet.

JPL scientists say that the project would have been impossible just 10 years ago, but a revolution in the miniaturization of electronics, high-powered batteries and lightweight materials for rotor blades has made the new mission possible.

It took several iterations and experiments to get the copter to lift off in s straight line inside a specially-designed chamber that simulated the Mars atmosphere.

Over 30 days, the helicopter will make up to five flights. For most of the time, however, the copter will remain still, waiting for solar panels to recharge the batteries.

The first is to go up about a few feet and hover for up to 30 seconds, then land. Subsequent flights will be longer, higher, farther. The plan is to test the copter on several short liftoffs on Mars, reaching perhaps just a few feet above the dusty plain where it will be released from the Perseverance. On the fifth flight, assuming all systems are go, the copter will lift off to 15 feet and fly out about 500 feet and come back. Two cameras will help the copter navigate and the flight will last a minute and a half.

This is an extremely exciting time for JPL’s planetary exploration project. The Juno project has been sending back stunning images of Jupiter, including strange hexagonal cloud formations at the poles of the giant planet.

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A Metal Asteroid?

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