A Massive Aircraft Carrier called the USS Independence Rests in Deep Waters off the Coast of California

From Battlefront to Atomic Legacy: The Journey of the USS Independence to Its Final Resting Place off Northern California

The U.S. Navy light aircraft carrier USS *Independence* (CVL-22) in San Francisco Bay (USA) on 15 July 1943. Note that she still carries Douglas SBD *Dauntless* dive bombers. Before entering combat the air group would only consist of Grumman F6F *Hellcat* fighters and TBF *Avenger* torpedo bombers. (Wikipedia)

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The waters off California’s coast are scattered with relics of wartime history, each telling its own story of conflict and survival. Among these wrecks is the USS Independence, a WWII aircraft carrier whose journey took it from the heights of naval warfare to the depths of nuclear experimentation. Today, it lies as an underwater monument to both wartime heroics and the nascent atomic age.

Converted from the hull of a Cleveland-class light cruiser, the USS Independence was built by the New York Shipbuilding Corporation and commissioned in January 1943. She quickly became a key player in the Pacific Theater. She took part in early attacks on Rabaul and Tarawa before being torpedoed by Japanese aircraft, necessitating repairs in San Francisco from January to July 1944. After these repairs, the Independence launched strikes against targets in Luzon and Okinawa, and was part of the carrier group that sank remnants of the Japanese Mobile Fleet during the Battle of Leyte Gulf, as well as several other Japanese ships in the Surigao Strait.

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It took part in pivotal operations such as those at Tarawa, Kwajalein, and the Marianas, contributing significantly to the success of Allied forces. Until the surrender of Japan, she was assigned to strike duties against targets in the Philippines and Japan, and she completed her operational duty off the coast of Japan, supporting occupation forces until being assigned to be a part of Operation Magic Carpet, an operation by the U.S. War Shipping Administration to repatriate over eight million American military personnel from the European, Pacific, and Asian theaters. The ship’s role in supporting invasions and launching strikes helped secure a strategic advantage in the Pacific, establishing the Independence as an integral part of the U.S. Navy’s war effort.

Aerial view of ex-USS *Independence* at anchor in San Francisco Bay, California, January 1951. There is visible damage from the atomic bomb tests at Bikini Atoll. (San Francisco Maritime National Historical Park)

After WWII ended, the Independence was not destined for a peaceful decommissioning like many of her sister ships. Instead, it was selected for an unprecedented mission: to test the effects of nuclear explosions on naval vessels. In 1946, the Independence became part of Operation Crossroads at Bikini Atoll, a series of nuclear tests aimed at understanding the power of atomic bombs. Positioned near ground zero for the “Able” and “Baker” detonations, the carrier survived but sustained heavy radioactive contamination. Towed back to the United States, it became the subject of further scientific study, focusing on radiation’s effects on naval ships.

Thermonuclear blast part of Operation Crossroads

Ultimately, in 1951, the Navy decided to scuttle the Independence off the coast of California, within what is now the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary and near the Farallon Islands. The ship was intentionally sunk in deep waters, where it would remain hidden for over sixty years. In 2015, researchers from NOAA, in partnership with Boeing and other organizations, used advanced sonar technology to locate the wreck. Lying nearly 2,600 feet below the surface and approximately 30 miles off the coast of San Francisco, the Independence was found in remarkably good condition. The cold, dark waters of the Pacific had preserved much of its hull and flight deck, leaving a ghostly relic that continued to capture the imagination of historians and marine scientists alike.

The U.S. Navy light aircraft carrier USS *Independence* (CVL-22) afire aft, soon after the atomic bomb air burst test “Able”
at Bikini Atoll on 1 July 1946. (US NAVY)

In 2016, the exploration vessel Nautilus, operated by the Ocean Exploration Trust, conducted detailed dives to study the wreck. The exploration utilized remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), equipped with high-definition cameras and scientific tools, to capture extensive footage and data. The mission was led by a multidisciplinary team of researchers, including marine biologists, archaeologists, and oceanographers from NOAA and the Ocean Exploration Trust, highlighting the collaborative effort necessary for such an in-depth underwater expedition. Remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) provided stunning footage of the carrier, revealing aircraft remnants on the deck and bomb casings that hinted at its atomic test history.

Part of an aircraft on the USS Independence seen during the NOAA / *Nautilus* expedition off the coast of California. (NOAA)

Despite its radioactive past, the wreck had transformed into a thriving artificial reef. Marine life, including fish, crustaceans, and corals, had made the irradiated structure their home, providing researchers with a valuable opportunity to study how marine ecosystems adapt to and flourish on man-made, contaminated structures. Among the biological discoveries, researchers noted a variety of resilient species that had colonized the wreck, including deep-sea corals that appeared to be unaffected by the radiation levels. Additionally, biologists observed that some fish populations had become more abundant due to the complex structure offered by the wreck, which provided shelter and new breeding grounds. This adaptation indicates that artificial reefs—even those with a history of contamination—can become crucial havens for marine biodiversity. Studies also identified microorganisms capable of thriving in irradiated environments, which could help inform future research into bioremediation and the impact of radiation on biological processes. These findings collectively reveal the remarkable ability of marine life to adapt, demonstrating resilience even in challenging conditions shaped by human activities.

The shipwreck site of the former aircraft carrier, *Independence*, is located in the northern region of Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary.

The ship’s resting place has also become an important case study for understanding the long-term effects of radiation in marine environments. Researchers have found that despite the contamination from the atomic tests, the marine life around the Independence has flourished, suggesting a remarkable resilience in the face of human-induced challenges. This has provided invaluable information on how marine ecosystems can adapt and endure even in seemingly inhospitable conditions, shedding light on ecological processes that could inform conservation efforts in other marine environments.

Guns on the USS Independence off the coast of California. An array of corals sponges and fish life are a remarkable testament to manmade reefs to attract sea life (NOAA)

The exploration of the Independence also stands as a technological achievement. The discovery and study of the wreck required advanced sonar imaging and remotely operated vehicle technology, showcasing the capabilities of modern marine archaeology. The collaboration between NOAA, the Ocean Exploration Trust, and other organizations has underscored the importance of interdisciplinary approaches in uncovering and preserving underwater cultural heritage.

Ultimately, the USS Independence is more than just a sunken warship—it is a chapter of American history frozen in time beneath the waves of the Pacific. As a subject of study, it bridges past conflicts with modern scientific inquiry, providing a rich narrative that combines warfare, innovation, and nature’s adaptability. Its story continues to evolve as researchers uncover more about the vessel and the surrounding ecosystem, making it not only a relic of history but also a symbol of discovery and resilience.

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The Magic, Wonder, and Science of Ocean Bioluminescence in Southern California

How and why so many of earth’s creatures make their own light.

Bioluminescent waves in Southern California

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Last month, a video went viral showing a small pod of dolphins swimming at night off the coast of Newport Beach. Seeing dolphins off Southern California is not particularly unusual, but this was a very special moment. In the video, the dolphins appear to be swimming through liquid light, their torpedo-shaped bodies generating an ethereal blue glow like a scene straight out of Avatar. The phenomenon that causes the blue glow has been known for centuries, but that in no way detracts from its wonder and beauty. The phenomenon is called bioluminescence, and it is one of nature’s most magical and interesting phenomena.

A Caridean shrimp, *Parapandalus* sp., enveloped in bioluminescent spew emitted during an escape response. *(NOAA/OER)*

Bioluminescence is the production and emission of light by a living organism, and it is truly one of the great magical properties of nature. At its core, bioluminescence is the way animals can visually sense the world around them. It’s all built on vision, one of the most fascinating and useful senses in the animal kingdom. Seeing is impossible without light, and so it makes sense that in the absence of sunlight, some animals created a way to make their own light.

I have been fascinated by bioluminescence since I was a child growing up near Newport Beach when the occasional nearshore red tide bloom would illuminate the waves like a high tech LED light show. It’s a truly magical experience. I’ve also experienced bioluminescence in various places around the world, including Thailand, Mexico, and Puerto Rico. In fact, 13 years ago, I made the trip to Puerto Rico’s Vieques Island and its world-famous Mosquito Bay, for the sole purpose of seeing the bay in person and swimming and kayaking in its warm, glowing waters (there is a rental outfit there that does tours at night…it’s amazing. Trust me.)

The phenomenon of bioluminescence is surprisingly common in nature. Both terrestrial and sea animals do it, as do plants, insects (for example, fireflies), and fungi. Curiously, no mammals bioluminesce. That we know of, although several species fluoresce, which is when organisms absorb light at one wavelength and emit it at another, often under ultraviolet (UV) light. The platypus is an example. But the ocean is definitely the place that animals and plants bioluminesce the most. Which makes sense because deep in the ocean, there is little or no light. Light is absorbed very quickly in the water, so while on land you might be able to see a single streetlight miles away, after about 800 feet, light largely disappears in the depths of the ocean. I know. I’ve been there.

It’s estimated that nearly 90 percent of the animals living in the open ocean, in waters below 1,500 feet, make their own light. Why they do this is in part a mystery, but scientists are pretty sure they understand the basic reasons animals do it: to eat, to not be eaten, and to mate. In other words, to survive. And to communicate.

The angler fish dangles a lighted lure in front of its face to attract prey. Some squid expel bioluminescent liquid, rather than ink, to confuse their predators. A few shrimp do too. Worms and small crustaceans use bioluminescence to attract mates. When it is attacked, the Atolla jellyfish (Atolla wyvillei) broadcasts a vivid, circular display of bioluminescent light, which scientists believe may be a kind of alarm system. The theory is that the light will attract a larger predator to go after whatever is attacking the jellyfish. While this is still a theory, a 2019 expedition that took the very first images of the giant squid used a fake Atolla jellyfish designed by the scientist Edith Widder to lure the squid into frame. I had the fortune of interviewing Dr. Widder, one of the world’s top experts on bioluminescence, several years ago for the New York Times.

Edith Widder holds a vial of bioluminescent plankton. Credit: Erik Olsen

Making light is clearly beneficial. That’s why, say evolutionary biologists, it appears that bioluminescence has arisen over forty separate times in evolutionary history. The process is called convergent evolution and is the same reason that bats and birds and insects all evolved to fly independently. Clearly, flying confers a major advantage. So does making light.

While the Internet is awash in images of bioluminescent creatures, very often the term is confused with fluorescence (mentioned above). Even reputable science organizations sometimes do this. Bioluminescence is not the same thing as fluorescence. Fluorescence is the emission of light by a substance that has absorbed light or other electromagnetic radiation. Many animals like scorpions and coral fluoresce, meaning that they appear to glow a bright otherworldly color when blue light is shone on them. The key idea here is that the animals are not generating their own light, but rather contain cells that reflect light in fluorescence.

Fluorescent (not bioluminescent) scorpion in Baja California, Mexico. Credit: Erik Olsen

So what about the recent explosion of bioluminescence in Southern California? The light we are seeing is made by tiny organisms, type of plankton called dinoflagellates (Lingulodinium polyedra) that occasionally “bloom” off-shore. Often, this is the result of recent storms that bring tons of nutrient-laden runoff into the ocean. The tiny plankton feed on nitrogen and other nutrients that enter the ocean from rivers and streams and city streets. A lot of the nutrients come from California’s vast farms, specifically the fertilizer used to grow California’s fruits and vegetables. With all that “food” coming into the ocean system, the algae rapidly multiply, creating red tides, or vast patches of ocean that turn dark brownish red, the color of pigment in the algae that helps protect it from sunlight. Michael Latz, a scientist at Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego, says that the animals use bioluminescence as a predator avoidance behavior.

Sometimes red tides are toxic and can kill animals and make people sick who swim in the ocean. (That does not appear to be the case in California right now). At night, when they are still, the animals can’t be seen. But when the water is disturbed, which adds oxygen into the mix, a chemical reaction takes place in their bodies that causes luciferin (from the Latin lucifer or ‘light-bearer’) to oxidize and becomes catalyzed to make luciferase, which emits photons or particles of light. It’s not understood exactly how or why this happens, but we do know there are many kids of luciferase. In fact, scientists know the genes that create luciferases and have implanted them into organisms like mice, silkworms, and potatoes so that they glow. They’ve made bioluminescent plants, too. An Idaho-based start up called Light Bio, in fact, sells bioluminescent petunias that you can purchase.

Light Bio’s genetically engineered petunias glow green thanks to DNA added from bioluminescent mushrooms. Photo (Light Bio)

Perhaps the most magical thing about bioluminescence is that it doesn’t create heat. Almost all the lights we are familiar with, particularly incandescent light, like that from generic light bubs, generate a tremendous amount of heat. Of course, we have learned how to make this heatless chemical light ourselves, easily experienced when you crack and shake a glow stick, mixing together several chemicals in a process similar to the one animals in the ocean use to create bioluminescent light. But the light from glow sticks is not nearly strong enough to illuminate your back yard. In the last few decades, we’ve learned how to make another kind of light that produces little heat: LEDs. Though the process is very different, the concept is the same: talking a molecule or a material and promoting it to an excited state. Where electricity is used, in the case of LEDs, it’s called electroluminescence, where it’s a chemical reaction it’s chemiluminescence, of which bioluminescence is one form.

Whether you are a religious person or not (I’m not) it’s no coincidence that one of the first things God said was, “Let there be light!” Light and light energy give us plants and animals to eat, and allows us to see. It heats our world, it fuels our cars (oil is really just dead organic material compressed over time, and that organic material would not have existed without sunlight). While some animals deep in the ocean can live without light, most of us cannot. And it’s a rather astounding feat of nature than when there is no light, many of the earth’s creatures have evolved to produce it themselves. If you don’t believe me, just go down to the Southern California shore in the evening when there is a red tide. Leave your flashlight at home. You won’t need it.

The Lost Island of Santarosae off California’s Coast

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Imagine a massive island off the coast of California roughly thrice the size of Maui, a lush and wild place where miniature mammoths once roamed and ancient humans hunted in the shadows of towering trees. This island once existed and it’s called Santarosae, and while it is gone now, it was once a thriving ecosystem, teeming with life. Its story provides a captivating window into the ever-changing natural history of the California coast region.

During the last Ice Age, approximately 20,000 to 25,000 years ago, when sea levels were significantly lower, Santarosae Island was a single, expansive landmass that now comprises most of California’s Channel Islands. As the cooler Pleistocene climate transitioned into the warmer Holocene (the epoch we are in now), the Earth’s oceans heated and expanded. Continental ice sheets and glaciers melted, releasing vast amounts of water and causing sea levels to rise dramatically.

At its peak, Santarosae was massive—four of today’s Channel Islands (San Miguel, Santa Rosa, Santa Cruz, and Anacapa) were all connected into a single landmass. It spanned around 1,500 square miles, making it a significant feature of the Pacific coast landscape. Today, only remnants remain in the form of those four separate islands, but evidence of Santarosae’s ancient past continues to reveal itself to scientists.

Map depicting the reconstructed geography of Santarosae.

Anacapa was the first to break away, around 10,300 to 10,900 years ago, as rising waters gradually submerged the narrow isthmus that once connected it to the rest of Santarosae. This slow disintegration of the super island was witnessed by the humans already inhabiting the region. Having arrived between 12,710 and 13,010 years ago, possibly even earlier, these early settlers likely traveled by boat, following the “kelp highway“—a rich, coastal ecosystem of underwater seaweed forests stretching from northern Japan and Kamchatka, along the southern shores of Beringia, down the Pacific Northwest, and into Baja California. For these early explorers, Santarosae would have appeared as a land of abundant resources.

One of the island’s most captivating features was its population of pygmy mammoths, found exclusively on Santarosae. Standing between 4.5 to 7 feet tall at the shoulder and weighing around 2,000 pounds, these miniaturized versions of mainland Columbian mammoths were about the size of a large horse and evolved to suit their isolated island habitat (see our story on the island biogeography of the Channel Islands). The reasons for their dwarfism stem from a phenomenon called island rule, where species on islands often shrink due to limited resources and isolation, as well as a shortage of predators. Despite their smaller size, these island-dwelling mammoths likely shared many characteristics with their larger relatives, including a similar body shape, short fur, and a large head. These mammoths roamed Santarosae until they disappeared around 13,000 years ago, coinciding with both climate changes and the arrival of humans.

Pygmy Mammoth excavation on the Channel Islands (NPS)

The first discovery of “elephant” remains on Santa Rosa Island was reported in 1873. Over time, additional excavations provided insight into the island’s mammoth population, which gradually became smaller over generations, eventually disappearing at the end of the Pleistocene. Notably, paleontological digs conducted on Santa Rosa Island in 1927 and 1928 unearthed the remains of a new species, Mammuthus exilis. In the 1940s and 1950s, Philip Orr of the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History recovered further specimens while conducting archaeological and geological work on the island.

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Most pygmy mammoth remains have been discovered on Santa Rosa and San Miguel Islands, with fewer finds from Santa Cruz Island and even fewer from San Nicolas Island, which lies outside the Channel Islands National Park.

Santarosae was not just a wilderness for megafauna—it was home to some of the earliest known human settlers in North America. Archaeological discoveries, such as the remains of a 13,000-year-old woman unearthed on Santa Rosa Island, point to a sophisticated maritime culture. These ancient humans, likely ancestors of the Chumash people, navigated the waters around Santarosae in plank canoes, hunting seals, birds, and fish, while gathering plants and shellfish.

Archaeologists excavate a anthropological site at the Channel Islands (NPS)

The island provided ample resources, but it wasn’t isolated from the rest of the world. The people of Santarosae were part of a complex trade network that stretched across the California coast. Evidence of these connections can be seen in the tools and materials found on the island, some of which came from distant sources. As sea levels rose, however, these early inhabitants had to adapt to the shrinking island, eventually migrating to the mainland.

Santarosae’s landscape during the Ice Age was strikingly different from what we see on today’s Channel Islands. Dense forests of pines, oaks, and other vegetation covered much of the island, supporting a rich diversity of life. The island’s topography included hills, valleys, and freshwater sources, offering an ideal environment for both humans and animals. As the climate warmed and sea levels rose, the island’s ecology shifted. Forests retreated, and the landscape began to resemble the wind-swept, scrubby terrain seen on the modern Channel Islands.

The rise in sea levels didn’t just transform the landscape; it also altered the ecosystems. Many of the animals, like the pygmy mammoths, couldn’t survive the changing conditions (or human hunters), while new species adapted to the shrinking landmass. Birds, insects, and plant species began to dominate, and the island ecosystems became more specialized.

Today, the remnants of Santarosae offer an invaluable window into the past. The Channel Islands National Park protects much of the area, and researchers continue to uncover clues about the island’s history. Ongoing archaeological digs and ecological studies on the islands help piece together the story of Santarosae’s people, animals, and landscape.

Tourists now enjoy the natural beauty of the Channel Islands (Erik Olsen)

For those who visit the Channel Islands today, it’s hard to imagine the ancient world of Santarosae—a much larger island teeming with life. But the remnants of this lost island still hold secrets waiting to be uncovered, offering a fascinating glimpse into California’s distant past and a reminder of how the forces of nature continually reshape our world.

Though Santarosae is now submerged, its influence is still a significant part of California’s natural history.

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Squid Pro Quo: How the California Market Squid Gives Back to Nature and Economy

California Market Squid. The animal’s skin is covered with thousands of tiny chromatophores that change color and can dramatically transform the squid’s appearance.

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The ocean’s depths are filled with mysterious and fascinating creatures, but few have made quite the splash in both nature and culture as the squid. Sleek, swift, and full of surprises, these little cephalopods are not only culinary favorites but also masters of survival in the ever-changing marine world.

The California market squid, scientifically known as Doryteuthis opalescens, is an integral component of the marine ecosystem and significantly contributes to California’s economy. Although these cephalopods may not captivate public imagination as vividly as their larger, more enigmatic cousins like the giant squid, or even California’s charismatic Two-Spotted Octopus, their role is both ecologically and economically invaluable.

In appearance, Doryteuthis opalescens is a relatively small squid, typically measuring up to a foot in length. It is characterized by its elongated tubular body and mantle. It has a set of eight shorter arms and two longer tentacles, all equipped with suckers for prey capture. The skin of the California market squid contains specialized pigment cells called chromatophores, which allow it to change color in mesmerizing ways. This is not just a display of beauty; the capability is used for camouflage from predators and likely communication with other squids. Their complex eyes are especially remarkable. These structures are highly developed and contain a lens that can focus, similar to the optical system in the human eye, allowing the squid to have keen vision—a trait essential for both hunting and avoiding predators.

The squid’s eyes contain a lens that can focus, similar to the optical system in the human eye, allowing the squid to have keen vision. (Wikipedia)

As for their reproductive habits, the mating and spawning of California market squid generally occur from April to November. The male deposits a spermatophore, or sperm packet, into the female’s mantle cavity. Post-fertilization, the female lays between 200 to 300 eggs, encapsulated in clusters, and attaches them to the substrate on the ocean floor. Neither parent plays a role in the post-fertilization life of these eggs. Both males and females often die shortly after mating, leading to a rather short life span for these creatures, usually between six to nine months.

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The feeding behavior of the California market squid is best described as opportunistic. They primarily consume plankton, small fish, and other marine organisms. This diet situates them in a critical role within the food web, serving as both predator to smaller organisms and prey to larger marine animals. Typically, they inhabit depths less than 300 meters and are more active during nighttime, migrating vertically within the water column to follow prey and avoid predators.

**Squid vessels at night, lights ablaze, looking for market squid in Monterey Bay**. (Photo: *CDFW*)

Economically, the California market squid has an enormous impact. According to reports, it represents the largest fishery in California by volume. In 2022, commercial landings of market squid totaled 147 million pounds and were valued at $88 million, according to the NOAA Fisheries commercial fishing landings database. The fishery for this particular species accounts for nearly 25% of all commercial fishery landings by weight in the state. The significance of the market squid extends to the international sphere, as a considerable portion of the catch is exported to countries in Europe and Asia. In some years, the squid are abundant, but in other years, they are hard to find. Cyclical changes in ocean conditions can change the productivity of California waters and squid populations plummet. In some particularly bad years, the squid fishing industry suffers.

In California, the Fish and Game Commission collaborates with the Department of Fish and Wildlife to actively manage the market squid fishery in line with federal guidelines and the state’s Market Squid Fishery Management Plan.

Changes in climate may end up having a major impact on the squid and the fishery. A 2020 paper from Stanford University published in The American Naturalist, details how climate change has likely ushered the squid north in the Gulf of Alaska, perhaps due to rising ocean temperatures causing the squid to move to more suitable habitats. The study highlights how the squid’s migration could impact local ecosystems, where their presence could alter food chains by competing with or preying on native species like young salmon. This research may predict broader marine species shifts in the future. The squid’s populations are also clearly linked to El Niño cycles.

“As climate change progresses, there are bound to be other species like the California market squid that move to more suitable seas,” Mark Denny, the John B. and Jean De Nault Professor in Marine Science at Hopkins Marine Station and senior author on the paper told Stanford’s Earth Matters Magazine. “Investigating what happens to this squid and the ecosystems around them right now will help researchers predict what could happen to other marine life later.”

As mentioned above, given its economic and ecological relevance, there are stringent regulations and monitoring programs in place to ensure sustainable fishing practices. Seasonal closures of the fishery, especially during peak spawning seasons, and restrictions on the type of fishing gear used are examples of such management strategies. The squid is considered a “smart seafood choice” by NOAA. These measures aim to minimize bycatch and preserve the squid population, thereby sustaining the ecological balance within the marine environment.

However, the agency notes: “Short- and long-term changes in the market squid population are poorly understood, The stock has not been assessed so there are no reliable estimates of the population size and the overfished and overfishing status are unknown.”

Despite being delicious, particularly when fried, the California market squid is far more than just an item on a seafood menu. It is a linchpin species that not only contributes to biodiversity in California, but also holds substantial economic value. Its role in the food web as both predator and prey, as well as its economic impact on both the local and global scales, positions it as a vital species deserving of ongoing scientific study and responsible management.

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Unraveling the Geology Behind Palos Verdes’ Ongoing Landslide Crisis

A neighborhood threatened by landslides at Portuguese Bend on Palos Verdes (Erik Olsen)

For decades, geologists and engineers have been aware that the Portuguese Bend region of Palos Verdes is prone to landslides. Early maps and aerial surveys from the 1930s show continuous movement from the upper hills towards the high cliffs and bluffs that reach the Pacific Ocean.

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Over the years, with a few exceptions, the ground movement was relatively slow, averaging about a foot per year. However, after the intense rains of the past year or two, the land is now shifting much more rapidly—up to 9 to 12 inches per week—plunging neighborhoods and communities built on this unstable terrain into panic and disarray. This accelerated movement has caused irreparable damage to some homes and led California to declare a state of emergency.

Aerial survey from the 1930s showing landslide potential at Portuguese Bend in Palos Verdes (Ranch Palos Verdes city government)

People have been allowed to build homes at Portuguese Bend largely due to a combination of historical oversight, demand for coastal real estate, and limited understanding of the area’s geologic instability when development first began. In the 1950s and 1960s, when much of the residential development in the area took place, there was less awareness and fewer regulations regarding the risks of building on unstable ground. Additionally, the picturesque coastal views and desirable location made Portuguese Bend an attractive area for developers and homeowners. Despite known landslide risks, building permits were often issued because of insufficient geotechnical assessments, political and economic pressures, and a lack of stringent land-use policies at the time. Over the years, as the understanding of the area’s geologic hazards has grown, there have been more restrictions and efforts to mitigate risks, but many homes already exist on land prone to movement.

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The situation is similar to building homes in fire-prone areas – well-known to Californians, of course – within the so-called Wildland-Urban Interface (WUI), where human development meets and mixes with natural landscapes, creating a high-risk zone for natural disasters.

Small landslide at Portuguese Bend in Palos Verdes (Erik Olsen)

Portuguese Bend is one of the most active landslide zones on the peninsula. Here, the earth moves continuously, almost imperceptibly at times, but the effects are undeniable. The land isn’t just sliding; it’s flowing—like a slow-moving river of rock and dirt—down a natural depression, a sort of bowl or gulch formed by the interplay of tectonic activity and erosion. This gradual yet relentless descent toward the sea is driven by a combination of factors: the underlying geology of ancient marine sediment layers, heavy rainfall, and the constant forces of gravity pulling on the steep slopes. As a result, roads buckle, homes crack, and entire sections of land shift over time.

The geological makeup of Palos Verdes is complex and varied. The most prominent rocks on the Palos Verdes Peninsula, and the most crucial in terms of slope stability, belong to the Miocene Monterey Formation, which we wrote about in a previous article. This formation, over 2,000 feet thick in some areas, has been divided into three distinct members based on their rock types: the Altamira Shale, the Valmonte Diatomite, and the Malaga Mudstone, arranged from oldest to youngest.

Portuguese Bend at Palos Verdes

The Altamira Shale primarily consists of thin-bedded sedimentary rocks formed from layers of clay, interspersed with numerous layers of tuff, or volcanic ash that has largely transformed into weak clays over time. Thick deposits of volcanic ash, laid down millions of years ago, have been compacted into a clay-like material known as bentonite. When bentonite comes into contact with water, it becomes extremely slippery, acting like a natural lubricant. This slippery nature has been a major factor in triggering landslides throughout the Rancho Palos Verdes area, where the land’s stability is continually undermined by these underlying geological conditions.

Another factor contributing to landslides is the region’s tectonic activity. Palos Verdes sits above several active faults, including the Palos Verdes Fault. The movement along these faults exerts stress on the rock formations, leading to fractures and cracks that weaken the slopes. These cracks often become pathways for water to seep into the ground, further destabilizing the already precarious terrain.

The road along the coast at Portuguese Point has been moving for decades, a slow but relentless reminder of the dynamic nature of California’s landscape. (Erik Olsen)

Water plays a crucial role in triggering landslides in this region. Heavy rains, especially those associated with El Niño events like the atmospheric rivers of the last few years, can lead to a rapid increase in groundwater levels. When water infiltrates the ground, it increases the pressure within the soil and rock, reducing the friction that holds everything together. In Palos Verdes, where irrigation, septic systems, and urban development are common, human activities can exacerbate this natural process by altering drainage patterns and increasing water saturation in vulnerable areas. This convergence of natural and human-made factors makes the slopes more prone to sliding, particularly during or after intense rainfall.

To combat this, construction teams have installed a series of dewatering wells and pumps to actively extract groundwater from deep within the hillside. By lowering the water table and reducing the amount of water that saturates the soil, these efforts help to decrease the pressure within the slope and mitigate the risk of further ground movement. This method of dewatering is a crucial element in stabilizing the land, as it helps prevent the soil from becoming too heavy and reduces the lubricating effect that water has on the bentonite clay layers.

Closed road at Portuguese Bend in Palos Verdes (Erik Olsen)

Coastal erosion is another critical factor. The rugged cliffs of Palos Verdes are constantly being eroded by the ocean’s waves, wind, and rain. Over time, wave action undercuts the base of the cliffs, removing the support for the upper layers and leaving them hanging precariously over the ocean. As the base erodes away, the upper cliffs become more susceptible to collapse. When combined with the weakened geology and increased groundwater levels, this coastal erosion sets the stage for dramatic landslides.

Portuguese Point cliffs are part of the constant coastal erosion process at Palos Verdes aerial photo (Erik Olsen)

Recent studies are shedding new light on why landslides in Palos Verdes continue to be a concern. Geologists are now using advanced technologies, such as ground-penetrating radar and satellite imagery, to better understand the underground conditions that contribute to landslides. A study from the University of California, Los Angeles, has explored how even minor shifts in groundwater levels, exacerbated by climate change and increasingly unpredictable weather patterns, can tip the balance and trigger significant slope failures. This research emphasizes that it’s not just the obvious heavy rainfall events that pose a threat; subtle changes in water content due to human irrigation, drought, or even slight variations in precipitation can also destabilize these slopes over time.

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Moreover, new geological mapping and subsurface studies have provided a clearer picture of the fault lines and the fractured rock layers beneath Palos Verdes. These studies suggest that the interaction between multiple fault zones may be more significant than previously thought, potentially increasing the region’s susceptibility to movement. Understanding these interactions is crucial for predicting future landslides and developing mitigation strategies.

But in the end, nature will likely have the final say.

Portuguese Bend in Palos Verdes (Erik Olsen)

The picture that emerges from these studies is one of a region where natural geological processes and human activities are in a delicate balance. It’s an ongoing fight that really offers a precarious vision of the future for residents and others who use the area for recreation. The weak rock formations, intersecting fault lines, and relentless coastal erosion create an environment where the land is always moving and on the brink of collapse. Add to this the unpredictable impacts of climate change, which can bring more intense storms and alter precipitation patterns, and it becomes clear why Palos Verdes is so prone to landslides.

Efforts to mitigate the risk are ongoing. Local governments and geologists are working to develop more effective monitoring systems and better land-use planning guidelines to manage development in these sensitive areas. Understanding the complex geology and hydrology of Palos Verdes is critical to preventing future disasters and protecting the communities that call this beautiful but unstable coastline home.

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California’s Monterey Formation: Unraveling the Secrets of a Fossil-Rich, Oil-Bearing Geological Wonder

Monterey Formation rocks near Newport Beach (Erik Olsen)

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California’s Monterey Formation is one of the most fascinating geological formations in the United States. Stretching along the California coast from San Francisco to Los Angeles, this formation is notable for its incredible diversity of siliceous rocks—rocks rich in silica, such as shale, chert, diatomite, and porcelanite. While these rocks are interesting to geologists, the Monterey Formation is also significant for its potential to explain the origins of petroleum deposits that have fueled California’s economy for over a century. NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory once called it “California’s primary petroleum source rock.”

Fracture network of joints and cross-joints exposed on bedding surface of siliceous shale. Note linked, larger-aperture fracture in center with oxidation rim. Montaña de Oro State Park. (NASA JPL)

At the heart of the Monterey Formation’s geology is the unique composition of many different types of rock that come together in such a way that they create an ideal environment for trapping oil. The intricate layering of organic-rich shales, siliceous rocks, carbonates, and diatomites forms a complex network of porous and permeable spaces, allowing oil to migrate into these reservoirs. Over time, these rocks act like natural sponges, effectively capturing and holding large quantities of oil within their formations, making the Monterey Formation one of California’s most significant petroleum sources. It is estimated that over 38 billion barrels of oil have been produced to date from fields whose source rock is the Monterey.

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Diatomite, a light, porous rock formed from the fossilized remains of diatoms, is a dominant feature. Diatoms, microscopic algae with silica-based cell walls, thrived in nutrient-rich waters, leading to the thick layers of sediments that later became diatomite. Chert, another key rock type in the formation, is formed from the recrystallization of biogenic silica, adding to the complexity of the geological record. Interspersed with these are organic-rich shales, which contain substantial amounts of organic material called kerogen. Over millions of years, kerogen undergoes a biological transformation becoming the oil and gas that now serve as the backbone of California’s petroleum industry (see our story on the history of the Long Beach oil industry).

The Monterey Formation displays a fascinating and unusual mixture of geological deposits, from deep ocean basins to shallow continental shelves. During the Miocene, upwelling currents along the California coast brought nutrient-rich waters to the surface, fostering high biological productivity and depositing vast amounts of biogenic silica, a form of silicon dioxide (SiO₂) that is produced by living organisms. Periods of fluctuating sea levels, driven by climate changes and tectonic shifts, further shaped the environment. During low sea levels, parts of the continental shelf were exposed, allowing for erosion from wind and sun. These would shift to periods of high sea levels, which allowed for denser, deep-water sedimentation. In some layers, the presence of evaporites—minerals that form from the evaporation of water—suggests extensive episodes of arid conditions, similar to what we are experiencing now with California’s recurring periods of drought.

Offshore oil platforms along California’s coast drill into the Monterey Formation, either tapping directly into its fractured shale or extracting oil that has migrated into more porous sandstone reservoirs. (Photo: Erik Olsen)

Much of the pioneering research on the geology, formation, and unique composition of the Monterey Formation was conducted by the late Robert Garrison, a distinguished professor of oceanography at the University of California, Santa Cruz. Garrison was considered the foremost expert on the Monterey Foundation, and his work was instrumental in revealing how the Monterey Formation’s diatomaceous and phosphatic deposits were shaped by a combination of oceanographic upwelling, climatic shifts, and tectonic activity during the Miocene epoch.

Petroleum geologists find the Monterey Formation especially intriguing because it serves as both a source and a reservoir for oil and gas, allowing them to better understand the processes of oil and gas generation, migration, and accumulation, as well as to develop more efficient extraction methods to maximize its economic potential. They are also quite beautiful. Walk along the beach near Crystal Cove in Orange County, for example, and examples of Monterey Formation rocks abound.

Monterey Formation rocks near Little Corona in Newport Beach (Erik Olsen)

Oil is formed from the remains of ancient marine organisms, such as plankton and algae, that were buried under layers of sediment and subjected to heat and pressure over millions of years, transforming them into hydrocarbons. Some of these hydrocarbons migrated into more permeable rocks, creating substantial oil fields that have been exploited for decades in Southern California. Certain layers of the Monterey Formation, particularly the fractured chert and dolomitic sections, also serve as excellent reservoirs due to their porosity and permeability, allowing them to store oil and gas for long periods of time.

Beyond its geological and economic importance, the Monterey Formation is a treasure trove for paleontologists. Its layers preserve a variety of marine fossils, including diatoms, radiolarians, foraminifera, and coccolithophores. These microfossils offer a detailed look at past ocean conditions, helping scientists reconstruct the climatic and oceanographic history of the Miocene epoch. Additionally, the formation contains fossils of larger marine vertebrates, such as whales, seals, and fish, providing further insight into the ecosystems of ancient oceans.

Microscope image of microfossils and organic matter in Monterey rocks. (Cal State Long Beach)

However, the Monterey Formation is not just a source of knowledge and resources; it also presents challenges, particularly in terms of potential environmental harm and geohazards like landslides. The soft, diatomaceous earth layers within the formation are prone to landslides, especially when water-saturated or fractured by tectonic action. This makes some coastal areas of California, where the Monterey Formation is exposed, particularly vulnerable to slope instability, posing risks for construction and development. Many recent news stories have documented the increasing rate at which the California coast is tumbling into the sea. An excellent recent book on the subject is Rosanna Xia’s California Against the Sea: Visions for Our Vanishing Coastline.

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California’s geology is a remarkable mosaic that tells a story of immense geological diversity and dynamic processes. Among its many treasures, the Monterey Formation stands out as a geological marvel—its intricate layers, rich fossil beds, and significant economic potential continue to captivate scientists and researchers from around the world. This unique formation is more than just rock; it is a time capsule that preserves millions of years of Earth’s history, from ancient marine ecosystems to dramatic shifts in climate and tectonic activity. As geologists, paleontologists, and environmental scientists delve deeper into its mysteries, the Monterey Formation reveals invaluable clues about the past while shaping our understanding of California’s ever-evolving landscape. It serves as a profound reminder of the powerful forces that have sculpted one of the most geologically varied regions on the planet and continues to inspire exploration and discovery in the fields of Earth science.

Beyond the Beach: How Santa Monica Became Home to the RAND Corporation, America’s Premier Defense Think Tank

RAND’s current headquarters in Santa Monica (Erik Olsen)

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When people think of Santa Monica, images of sun-soaked beaches, the iconic pier, and leisurely strolls along the Pacific Coast Highway often come to mind. It’s a city synonymous with surf, sand, and a laid-back California lifestyle. Yet, bunkered within this seaside haven is an institution far removed from the carefree spirit of the shore: RAND Corporation, one of the world’s most influential think tanks, with deep ties to the Department of Defense. While tourists flock to the hot sands and the 3rd Street Promenade, behind the walls of RAND’s headquarters, some of the nation’s brightest minds have quietly shaped U.S. policy and technology for decades.

The RAND Corporation, originally an acronym for “Research ANd Development,” is a think tank that has had a profound impact on policy and decision-making in various fields, including national security, science, technology, and social policy.

RAND emerged from the devastation of World War II, inspired by the success of the Manhattan Project, a $2 billion effort that produced the first atomic bomb. Seeing this achievement, five-star Air Force General Henry “Hap” Arnold recognized the need for a group of brilliant minds to keep America at the forefront of technological innovation. In 1946, Arnold assembled a small team of scientists with $10 million in funding to create RAND, short for Research and Development. He persuaded a family friend, aircraft mogul Donald Douglas, to host the project at his factory in Santa Monica.

Air Force General Henry “Hap” Arnold (USAF)

Within months, RAND captured the attention of academics, politicians, and military leaders with its groundbreaking report, “Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship.” At a time when rocket science was in its infancy, the think tank’s vision of an orbiting space station was revolutionary. The report not only detailed the type of fuel needed and the feasibility of constructing the station but also highlighted its potential to revolutionize weather forecasting, long-distance communication, and most crucially, its ability to intimidate America’s adversaries. If America could launch a satellite into space, what else might it achieve?

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Although President Truman decided against pursuing the space station, the military quickly embraced RAND. Thanks to Hap Arnold’s connections, the Air Force became RAND’s primary contractor, and the think tank began consulting on a wide range of projects, from propeller turbines to missile defense systems. The influx of contracts soon overwhelmed RAND, prompting the need to hire hundreds of additional researchers. In its recruitment ads, RAND proudly highlighted its intellectual pedigree, even drawing a direct line from its president, Frank Collbohm, to Isaac Newton. Whether or not that claim held water, the institute rapidly earned a reputation as the go-to place for envisioning innovative strategies to wage wars and deter adversaries.

In fact, in 1960s the Soviet newspaper Pravda nicknamed RAND “the academy of science and death and destruction.” American media outlets preferred to call them the “wizards of Armageddon.” The Atlantic called them “the paramilitary academy of United States strategic thinking”.

RAND’s strategic theories, including the concept of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD), were born from the devastating potential of atomic weapons, aiming to prevent nuclear war through deterrence.

But where is RAND located? When RAND was first established in 1946, it was housed in a building provided by Donald Douglas at his aircraft factory in Santa Monica. However, as RAND grew, it eventually moved to its own dedicated headquarters.

In 1953, RAND moved to a new building on a site provided by the city of Santa Monica. This building was designed specifically for RAND’s needs and became a recognizable landmark near the beach. In 2004, RAND moved again to a newly constructed headquarters in Santa Monica, located at 1776 Main Street. This modern facility was designed to better accommodate RAND’s evolving research activities and staff. So while RAND has always been in Santa Monica, it has moved to different buildings over the years.

Hand-tinted photo of the original RAND building at 1700 Main Street in Santa Monica, California, circa 1960s
RAND Archives

During the early years, RAND’s work was heavily focused on military and defense issues, reflecting the geopolitical climate of the Cold War. One of RAND’s most significant early contributions was the development of game theory and its application to military strategy. Pioneers like John Nash, who would later win the Nobel Prize in Economics, conducted seminal work at RAND during this period.

RAND’s analysts played a crucial role in the development of nuclear strategy, including the doctrine of mutually assured destruction (MAD). The think tank’s work on systems analysis, a method for evaluating complex systems, became a cornerstone of U.S. defense planning. RAND’s analysts developed strategies for deterrence, nuclear war scenarios, and the implications of various levels of nuclear arsenals.

“This was a very smart bunch,” said Ellsberg, just before his death on June 16, 2023. “The smartest group of people I ever did associate with. It turns out, by the way, intelligence is not a very good guarantee of wisdom.”
Daniel Ellsberg

Two key figures at the time, Albert Wohlstetter and Herman Kahn, were both pivotal figures at the RAND Corporation, where they contributed significantly to the development of U.S. nuclear strategy during the Cold War. Wohlstetter, known for his rigorous and analytical approach, emphasized the importance of maintaining a credible deterrent to Soviet aggression, which he articulated in his influential work, “The Delicate Balance of Terror.” Herman Kahn, another RAND was renowned for his work on nuclear warfare scenarios and is often credited with popularizing the concept of “mutual assured destruction” (MAD).

Their paths intersected with Daniel Ellsberg, who also worked at RAND as an analyst. Ellsberg, who later became famous for leaking the Pentagon Papers, was influenced by both Wohlstetter’s strategic insights and Kahn’s scenarios, but the resulting plans for how America would manage a nuclear war with the Russians terrified Ellsberg. As he recounted in the Netflix Documentary Turning Point, Ellsberg revealed that serious plans at RAND estimated a nuclear war with Russia and China could result in 600 million casualties, highlighting the catastrophic consequences that were considered in Cold War strategic planning. These revelations, along with his evolving moral stance, eventually led Ellsberg to become a vocal critic of U.S. military policies.

“This was a very smart bunch,” said Ellsberg, before his death on June 16, 2023. “The smartest group of people I ever did associate with. It turns out, by the way, intelligence is not a very good guarantee of wisdom.”

By the 1960s, RAND began to diversify its research agenda. The think tank started to tackle a wider array of issues, including healthcare, education, and social policy. In 1968, RAND established the Health Insurance Experiment, a landmark study that explored the effects of different levels of health insurance coverage on medical spending and health outcomes. This study had a lasting impact on health policy and remains one of the largest and most comprehensive studies of its kind.

Although Silicon Valley is given most of the credit, RAND also contributed to the development of the internet. In the 1960s, RAND researchers, including Paul Baran, were instrumental in developing the concept of packet-switching networks, which later became a fundamental technology underlying the internet. The key idea (which Baran worked on with others) was to develop a communication system that could withstand potential disruptions, such as those caused by a nuclear attack. His concept of breaking data into small packets and routing them through a decentralized network was groundbreaking, ensuring that information could still be transmitted even if parts of the network were compromised.

Paul Baran presents his work at a RAND in 2009
Photo by Diane Baldwin/RAND

In the 1980s and 1990s, RAND continued to expand its global influence. The organization opened offices in Europe and started collaborating with international governments and institutions. RAND’s research began to encompass global security, international development, and global health issues. RAND also pioneered the study of terrorism in the 1970s, well before the United Nations had even defined the term. Today, the RAND Terrorism Chronology Database, tracking all terrorist acts since 1968, is a crucial resource for the military and government.

One notable area of RAND’s recent work is in the field of education. RAND has conducted extensive research on educational policies and practices, including studies on school choice, teacher effectiveness, and the impacts of educational technology.

Despite its many contributions, RAND has faced criticisms and challenges. Some have argued that the think tank’s close ties to the military and government agencies may bias its research. Others have pointed out that, like any large organization, RAND’s influence can sometimes lead to the prioritization of certain agendas over others.

A British MQ-9A Reaper operating over Afghanistan in 2009 (Wikipedia)

One of RAND’s more controversial recent activities involved its research on U.S. drone warfare. Critics have raised concerns that RAND’s analyses have sometimes downplayed the ethical and civilian impact of drone strikes, focusing instead on the strategic advantages for the U.S. military. This has sparked debates about whether RAND’s close ties to the Department of Defense might influence the objectivity of its findings, particularly in areas where the moral and humanitarian implications are significant.

As of the most recent data, RAND Corporation employs approximately 1,950 people, including researchers, analysts, and support staff. The think tank operates with an annual budget of around $390 million, funding a wide array of research projects across various disciplines, including national security, health, education, and more. These figures can fluctuate based on the specific projects and funding sources in any given year.

Despite concerns about its influence, the RAND Corporation has remained a significant player in policy research. Its ability to adapt and broaden its focus has helped it stay relevant over the years. RAND’s work continues to inform policies that affect many aspects of public life, reflecting the ongoing role of independent research in policy-making.

So the next time you take a trip to the beach, take a moment to consider that just a short distance from the waves, some of the nation’s most critical and controversial policy decisions are being shaped at RAND’s headquarters in Santa Monica.

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From Battlefront to Atomic Legacy: The Journey of the USS Independence to Its Final Resting Place off Northern California

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