California’s Elephant Seals are the Giants of the Golden Coast

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Once teetering on the brink of extinction, the California elephant seal has made an astounding recovery thanks to stringent conservation efforts. But as you’ll read below, their recovery comes with an asterisk. These remarkable creatures, once hunted for their blubber, now thrive along California’s iconic coastline. With their distinctive trunk-like snouts and massive size (They really are huge. I’ve visited the beach near San Simeon several times to photograph them), elephant seals are an incredible sight.

Elephant seals can be seen along the California coast year-round, but specific times are better for different activities. The peak times to observe them are during their breeding season (December to March) and molting season (April to August). During these times, especially from January to March, beaches are filled with males battling for dominance and females giving birth. Outside these seasons, many seals are out at sea, but some can still be spotted during quieter months.

Even considering the animal’s unique appearance, the elephant seal is not just any ordinary seal. Its eating and mating habits are a riveting blend of deep-sea dives in pursuit of prey and intense beachfront battles for dominance during the breeding season.

The species has two main branches: the northern and southern elephant seal. The ones lolling on the California shores belong to the northern branch. Adult males can weigh as much as 2,300 kg (around 5,000 lbs) and can reach up to 14 feet in length. Females, though smaller, play a pivotal role in the seal’s lifecycle.

Elephant seals are deep-sea aficionados, embarking on two major foraging trips each year. To fuel the intense energy demands of mating season, they dive to impressive depths, often around 1,700 feet (518 m), but have been recorded reaching as deep as 5,015 feet (1,529 m). These long dives, sometimes lasting over an hour, help them hunt squids and fishes while also avoiding predators like great white sharks. Only sperm whales dive deeper and longer, showcasing the elephant seal’s mastery of the deep ocean.

The mating habits of the California elephant seal are a spectacle, a mix between The Biggest Loser and UFC. In wintertime, the beaches teem with activity. The males arrive first, establishing territories and preparing to woo potential mates. Skirmishes between rival males are like mixed martial arts battles between extreme heavyweights (ok, I’ll stop). As they fight for dominance and the right to mate, the elephant seal mating ritual can be quite intense. They engage in ferocious body slam battles, using their massive bodies and long proboscises to assert their strength. These skirmishes, often leading to visible scars and wounds, as well as broken bones, are all for the right to mate. The victor, having established his dominance, can then secure a harem of females, while the less dominant males must wait their turn or go without. This intense ritual underscores the seal’s primal drive to ensure its lineage in the face of fierce competition.

Mating battles between elephant seals can be brutal. Photo: NOAA

A 2023 study published in the Royal Society Open Science showed that the mating battles take their toll on the animals, revealing that males with large harems who fought the most, also lived markedly shorter lives.

By the end of the season, successful males might have a harem of up to 50 females. After the mating rituals, females give birth to pups from the previous year’s mating season. The shores become dotted with adorable seal pups, drawing gawkers and photographers from around the globe.

Elephant seal near San Simeon, California. Photo: National Park Service

To catch a glimpse of these magnificent creatures, the California coastline offers several attractive vantage points. Popular spots include Año Nuevo State Park, Point Reyes National Seashore, and Piedras Blancas near San Simeon. Further offshore, the Channel Islands serve as a remote sanctuary for these seals, away from the bustling mainland. Specifically, San Miguel Island and Santa Rosa Island, both part of the Channel Islands National Park, are known hotspots for elephant seal rookeries. These islands provide remote and undisturbed habitats, making them ideal locations for elephant seals to mate, give birth, and molt.

Elephant seal rookery at Piedras Blancas near San Simeon

The elephant seal, despite its impressive size and strength, is not exempt from the challenges of predation. Great white sharks and orcas, or killer whales, are the primary natural predators of the elephant seal. While younger seals and females are more vulnerable due to their smaller size, even the massive adult males are not entirely safe. Great white sharks tend to target the seals when they’re in deep waters, ambushing them from below. Orcas, on the other hand, have been known to employ strategic hunting techniques to isolate and attack seals, especially near the shorelines. Several rather astonishing videos have been captured of orcas going after elephant seals in the wild.

The threat of these apex predators plays a significant role in shaping the behaviors and migratory patterns of the elephant seal, as they navigate the perilous waters of the Pacific in search of food and safe breeding grounds.

Elephant seals are known to be migratory, traveling thousands of miles across the Pacific. After their foraging trips, they return to their natal beaches to molt, shedding and replacing their fur and the outer layer of their skin.

Elephant seals on the beach at Piedras Blancas near San Simeon. (Erik Olsen)

However, the journey of the California elephant seal hasn’t always been smooth sailing. Over the past 50 years, there have been significant fluctuations in their population. In the late 19th century, they were nearly hunted to extinction for their blubber, which was valuable in oil production. By the end of the 1800s, only a small colony of fewer than 100 seals (some place the number closer to 25) was believed to exist. But here’s where the story takes a hopeful turn. Thanks to robust conservation efforts and protective legislation, their numbers began to rebound. Today, it’s estimated that the population is around 250,000, a testament to what protective measures can achieve. That said, an unknown proportion of elephant seal populations is always at sea, making accurate assessments of total population size is difficult.

Recent research in 2024 reveals a deeper consequence of this near-extinction event. Genetic analyses show that Northern Elephant seals, while rebounding, still bear “genetic scars.” The dramatic population decline going into the 20th century led to the loss of genetic diversity, raising concerns about inbreeding and potential future vulnerabilities to environmental changes or diseases. However, despite reduced diversity, no immediate health issues have been observed in the species.

Given the many other biological and ecological riches of California (this magazine highlights many of them), the elephant seal owns a precious spot in the pantheon of California’s natural wonders. With their unique lifecycle, impressive size, and dramatic beach battles, elephant seals hold a special place alongside the state’s ancient redwoods, vast deserts, and diverse marine life. Their remarkable comeback from near extinction and the key role they play in coastal ecosystems make them a symbol of resilience and the enduring power of nature to regenerate when given the chance.

New Research Sheds Light on the Saber-Toothed Cats of California, Fierce Predators of the Pleistocene

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Around 15,000 to 20,000 years ago, the landscape near present-day Los Angeles was a diverse mix of environments shaped by the end of the Ice Age. Cooler and wetter than today, it was dominated by savannah-like grasslands, wetlands, and patches of dense forests filled with towering oaks and pines. Prehistoric rivers and lakes dotted the landscape, nourishing a rich ecosystem teeming with life. Massive herbivores like mammoths, giant ground sloths, bison, and ancient camels roamed these plains, foraging on abundant grasses and shrubs.

Among these creatures of the Pleistocene Epoch, predators like saber-toothed cats (Smilodon fatalis) ruled, using the cover of forests and brush to ambush their prey. These large cats thrived alongside other carnivores like dire wolves and American lions, each species carving out its niche. However, the landscape was in flux—warming temperatures gradually dried out the environment, increasing the frequency of wildfires and altering the balance of flora and fauna. As human populations expanded and hunted large herbivores, the delicate ecosystem began to unravel, setting the stage for the extinction of many of the region’s iconic megafauna (more on this later).

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Saber-toothed cats are some of the most iconic prehistoric predators to have roamed California. Known for their distinctive long, blade-like canine teeth, these powerful carnivores thrived during a time when much of North America was covered in ice and the landscape teemed with large herbivores. Fossils of these magnificent creatures have been found across the state, with an impressive concentration in the famous La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles, revealing a vast amount of details about their biology, natural history, and the world they lived in. In fact, thousands of skeletons are preserved in the Rancho La Brea Tar Pits, making it the largest and most significant site for studying saber-tooth cats and other Pleistocene-era animals.

But first, let’s clear up a few things. The terms “saber-toothed tiger” and “saber-toothed cat” are often used interchangeably, but they refer to different concepts, and the distinction is important for scientific accuracy. “Saber-toothed tiger” is a misnomer because these prehistoric animals were not true tigers, nor were they closely related to them. Instead, they belonged to a now-extinct subfamily of felines called Machairodontinae, with the most famous genus being Smilodon. Modern tigers, on the other hand, belong to the Panthera genus and are part of a completely different evolutionary line. The term “saber-toothed cat” is more accurate because it reflects the broader diversity of species in this group, not just a single “tiger-like” animal. This distinction is crucial because it prevents confusion in understanding the evolutionary history of felines and avoids spreading inaccuracies in the scientific and popular understanding of extinct species.

A great deal of modern research has been conducted on the saber-tooth cat, ranging from genetic studies to isotopic analysis, fossil reconstruction, and insights into their ecological role during the Pleistocene Epoch. In fact, in 2020 researchers from the University of Copenhagen mapped the entire nuclear genome of a sabre-toothed cat known as Homotherium. The genetic study revealed new insights about a socially intelligent pack animal, that specialized in endurance-based hunting over long distances.

The cover of the 1908 October issue of *Sunset* magazine.

When you look at the fossilized skeletons of saber-toothed cats on display at the La Brea Tar Pits, it’s easy to imagine these powerful predators silently stalking their prey through the ancient landscapes, ready to spring with sharp, curved teeth bared and bloody from an earlier meal. Their upper canine teeth were long, sharp, and curved like sabers, often reaching lengths of up to 7 inches (18 cm). Unlike the teeth of modern big cats, which are built for biting and holding prey, the saber teeth were relatively fragile and not ideal for crushing bones. This suggests that these animals had to be precise in how they used their teeth to kill.

Saber toothed cat skull at La Brea Tar Pits (Erik Olsen)

Rather than relying on brute force to clamp down on their prey, saber-toothed cats likely used their teeth to deliver deep, slashing wounds to vulnerable areas, such as the neck, throat, or belly of large herbivores. Some scientists believe that after overpowering their prey with their strong forelimbs, they would deliver a quick, lethal bite, severing major blood vessels or the windpipe. The killing technique of saber-toothed cats was likely specialized for large, slow-moving prey like bison, mammoths, or camels.

Saber-toothed cat (*Smilodon fatalis*). (Indiana State Museum)

This precision style of hunting contrasts with how modern big cats, like lions, use their teeth to bite and hold, crushing the windpipe or suffocating their prey. The saber-toothed cat’s teeth were well-adapted to slicing, but not to the prolonged grip needed for suffocation.

A recent study on saber-toothed cats from paleontologist Jack Tseng of the University of California, Berkeley, reveals that juvenile cats retained their baby teeth alongside their developing adult fangs, likely as a stabilizing mechanism. This double-fanged stage, lasting up to 30 months, helped protect the growing sabers from breaking as young cats learned to hunt. Through computer simulations and mechanical tests, researchers demonstrated that the baby tooth acted as a buttress, reducing the risk of saber damage during this critical learning phase. This finding offers new insights into the hunting development of these prehistoric predators.

The cranium of a *Smilodon* with fully-erupted sabers (Jack Tseng)

Modern research is uncovering potential new insights into the saber-tooth cat’s behavior, including possible hunting techniques, social structures, and interactions with other species. Paleontologists have found fossilized throat bones in Smilodon at the La Brea Tar Pits similar to those in modern big cats like lions and tigers, suggesting that these prehistoric predators may have also roared with powerful vocalizations.

One of the most fascinating debates surrounding Smilodon is whether they hunted alone or in groups. Further fossil evidence from the La Brea Tar Pits suggests that these cats may have lived and hunted in social groups, similar to modern lions. Many Smilodon skeletons show evidence of healed injuries, which has led paleontologists to believe that they may have cared for each other in social settings, allowing injured individuals to recover rather than being abandoned. This level of social cooperation would have been an important adaptation in a world full of dangerous megafauna, enabling them to take down larger prey.

Prehistoric scene with saber-toothed cat.

The extinction of saber-toothed cats, specifically Smilodon, in California has been a subject of extensive research. A study from 2023 published in the prestigious journal Science shows just how quickly the largest animals disappeared from the La Brea fossil record. Scientists from the La Brea Tar Pits, including a University of Oregon professor and postdoctoral researcher, employed a computer model to explore how factors like wildfires, climate change, species loss, and human presence interacted. This revealed a far more intricate explanation for the extinctions than earlier theories, which often pinned the blame on a single factor such as human overhunting or climate shifts. According to the study, humans likely played a pivotal role by driving herbivores to extinction, which in turn led to an overgrowth of vegetation, creating fuel for wildfires. At the same time, the climate was becoming drier, compounding the problem, and leaving carnivores without sufficient prey to survive.

**Sequence of ecological events as recorded at Rancho La Brea, California.** (Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County)

Although most of the existing fossils came from the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles, Smilodon was widely distributed across North America, from coast to coast, reaching as far north as Idaho and Nebraska and extending south into South America. It is most famously associated with California and Florida. The oldest known fossil of Smilodon dates back approximately 500,000 years, while the youngest, discovered during bank construction in Nashville, Tennessee, is just 9,400 years old.

Saber-toothed cat fossil skeleton at La Brea Tar Pits (Erik Olsen)

The La Brea tar pits are a unique and incredibly fruitful outdoor laboratory for understanding animals from 50,000 years of the Pleistocene and the environment in which they lived. Paleontologists have unearthed thousands of Smilodon bones, providing a wealth of information about their anatomy and behavior. The bones show a high rate of injuries, including broken bones and bite marks, which supports the idea that these cats faced significant risks when hunting. In addition to Los Angeles, saber-toothed cat fossils have been found in various parts of California, including San Diego and along the Central Valley, though the La Brea Tar Pits remains the most prolific source.

Imagine that. One of the greatest fossil sites in the world lies amidst the skyscrapers and traffic-clogged streets of Los Angeles. It’s kind of mind-boggling.

Despite their extinction, the legacy of saber-toothed cats endures in the fossil record and in our imagination. Because of it’s ability to capture public interest, ane because the fossil record is so abundant and varied, Smilodon fatalis is now the state fossil of California, symbolizing the state’s rich prehistoric past.

Squid Pro Quo: How the California Market Squid Gives Back to Nature and Economy

California Market Squid. The animal’s skin is covered with thousands of tiny chromatophores that change color and can dramatically transform the squid’s appearance.

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The ocean’s depths are filled with mysterious and fascinating creatures, but few have made quite the splash in both nature and culture as the squid. Sleek, swift, and full of surprises, these little cephalopods are not only culinary favorites but also masters of survival in the ever-changing marine world.

The California market squid, scientifically known as Doryteuthis opalescens, is an integral component of the marine ecosystem and significantly contributes to California’s economy. Although these cephalopods may not captivate public imagination as vividly as their larger, more enigmatic cousins like the giant squid, or even California’s charismatic Two-Spotted Octopus, their role is both ecologically and economically invaluable.

In appearance, Doryteuthis opalescens is a relatively small squid, typically measuring up to a foot in length. It is characterized by its elongated tubular body and mantle. It has a set of eight shorter arms and two longer tentacles, all equipped with suckers for prey capture. The skin of the California market squid contains specialized pigment cells called chromatophores, which allow it to change color in mesmerizing ways. This is not just a display of beauty; the capability is used for camouflage from predators and likely communication with other squids. Their complex eyes are especially remarkable. These structures are highly developed and contain a lens that can focus, similar to the optical system in the human eye, allowing the squid to have keen vision—a trait essential for both hunting and avoiding predators.

The squid’s eyes contain a lens that can focus, similar to the optical system in the human eye, allowing the squid to have keen vision. (Wikipedia)

As for their reproductive habits, the mating and spawning of California market squid generally occur from April to November. The male deposits a spermatophore, or sperm packet, into the female’s mantle cavity. Post-fertilization, the female lays between 200 to 300 eggs, encapsulated in clusters, and attaches them to the substrate on the ocean floor. Neither parent plays a role in the post-fertilization life of these eggs. Both males and females often die shortly after mating, leading to a rather short life span for these creatures, usually between six to nine months.

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The feeding behavior of the California market squid is best described as opportunistic. They primarily consume plankton, small fish, and other marine organisms. This diet situates them in a critical role within the food web, serving as both predator to smaller organisms and prey to larger marine animals. Typically, they inhabit depths less than 300 meters and are more active during nighttime, migrating vertically within the water column to follow prey and avoid predators.

**Squid vessels at night, lights ablaze, looking for market squid in Monterey Bay**. (Photo: *CDFW*)

Economically, the California market squid has an enormous impact. According to reports, it represents the largest fishery in California by volume. In 2022, commercial landings of market squid totaled 147 million pounds and were valued at $88 million, according to the NOAA Fisheries commercial fishing landings database. The fishery for this particular species accounts for nearly 25% of all commercial fishery landings by weight in the state. The significance of the market squid extends to the international sphere, as a considerable portion of the catch is exported to countries in Europe and Asia. In some years, the squid are abundant, but in other years, they are hard to find. Cyclical changes in ocean conditions can change the productivity of California waters and squid populations plummet. In some particularly bad years, the squid fishing industry suffers.

In California, the Fish and Game Commission collaborates with the Department of Fish and Wildlife to actively manage the market squid fishery in line with federal guidelines and the state’s Market Squid Fishery Management Plan.

Changes in climate may end up having a major impact on the squid and the fishery. A 2020 paper from Stanford University published in The American Naturalist, details how climate change has likely ushered the squid north in the Gulf of Alaska, perhaps due to rising ocean temperatures causing the squid to move to more suitable habitats. The study highlights how the squid’s migration could impact local ecosystems, where their presence could alter food chains by competing with or preying on native species like young salmon. This research may predict broader marine species shifts in the future. The squid’s populations are also clearly linked to El Niño cycles.

“As climate change progresses, there are bound to be other species like the California market squid that move to more suitable seas,” Mark Denny, the John B. and Jean De Nault Professor in Marine Science at Hopkins Marine Station and senior author on the paper told Stanford’s Earth Matters Magazine. “Investigating what happens to this squid and the ecosystems around them right now will help researchers predict what could happen to other marine life later.”

As mentioned above, given its economic and ecological relevance, there are stringent regulations and monitoring programs in place to ensure sustainable fishing practices. Seasonal closures of the fishery, especially during peak spawning seasons, and restrictions on the type of fishing gear used are examples of such management strategies. The squid is considered a “smart seafood choice” by NOAA. These measures aim to minimize bycatch and preserve the squid population, thereby sustaining the ecological balance within the marine environment.

However, the agency notes: “Short- and long-term changes in the market squid population are poorly understood, The stock has not been assessed so there are no reliable estimates of the population size and the overfished and overfishing status are unknown.”

Despite being delicious, particularly when fried, the California market squid is far more than just an item on a seafood menu. It is a linchpin species that not only contributes to biodiversity in California, but also holds substantial economic value. Its role in the food web as both predator and prey, as well as its economic impact on both the local and global scales, positions it as a vital species deserving of ongoing scientific study and responsible management.

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Caltech Fly Labs and a Century of Genetic Discovery

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Few organisms in the history of science have been as important to our understanding of life as the humble fruit fly. The genus Drosophila melanogaster holds a particularly esteemed spot among the dozens of model organisms that provide insight into life’s inner workings. For more than 100 years, this tiny, but formidable creature has allowed scientists to unwind the infinitesimal mechanisms that make every living creature on the planet what it is.

And much of the work to understand the fruit fly has taken place and is taking place now, right here in California at the Cal Tech fly labs.

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Over the decades, Drosophila have been key in studying brain, behavior, development, flight mechanics, genetics, and more in many labs across the globe. These tiny, round-bodied, (usually) red-eyed flies might appear irrelevant, but their simplicity makes them ideal models. They’re easy to breed—mix males and females in a test tube, and in 10 days, you have new flies. Their 14,000-gene DNA sequence is relatively short, but extremely well-studied and there are some 8,000 genes which have human analogs. (The fly’s entire genome was fully sequenced in 2000.) Crucially, a century of fruit fly research, much of it led by Caltech, has produced genetic tools for precise genome manipulation and shed light on the act of flight itself.

But how did Drosophila become the darling of genetics?

In the early 20th century, the field of genetics was still in its infancy. Thomas Hunt Morgan, a biologist at Columbia University with a background in embryology and a penchant for skepticism began with an effort to find a simple, cheap, easy-to-breed model organism. At Columbia, he established a laboratory in room 613 of Schermerhorn Hall. This cramped space became famous for groundbreaking research in genetics, with Morgan making innovative use of the common fruit fly.

Thomas Hunt Morgan in the Fly Room at Columbia, 1922 (Cal Tech Archives)

Morgan, who joined Columbia University after teaching at Bryn Mawr College, chose the fruit fly for its ease of breeding and rapid reproduction cycle. Morgan observed a male fly with white eyes instead of the usual red. Curious about this trait’s inheritance, he conducted breeding experiments and discovered that eye color is linked to the X chromosome. He realized a male fly, with one X and one Y chromosome, inherits the white-eye trait from its mother, who provides the X chromosome. This led him to conclude that other traits might also be linked to chromosomes. His extensive experiments in this lab confirmed the chromosomal theory of inheritance, demonstrating that genes are located on chromosomes and that some genes are linked and inherited together.

After his groundbreaking research in genetics at Columbia University, Morgan moved to Pasadena and joined the faculty at CalTech in 1928, where he became the first chairman of its Biology Division and continued his influential work in the field of genetics establishing a strong genetics research program. Morgan’s work, supported by notable students like Alfred Sturtevant and Hermann Muller, laid the foundation for modern genetics and earned him the Nobel Prize in 1933.

CalTech then became a world center for genetics research using the fruit fly. Other notable names involved in fruit fly research at CalTech include Ed Lewis, a student of Morgan, who focused his research on the bithorax complex, a cluster of genes responsible for the development of body segments in Drosophila. His meticulous work over several decades revealed the existence of homeotic and Hox genes, which control the basic body plan of an organism (for which he won the 1995 Nobel Prize).

Novel prize winner Edward Lewis (Nobel Prize.org)

Seymour Benzer, another luminary at CalTech, shifted the focus from genes to behavior. Benzer’s innovative experiments in the 1960s and 1970s sought to understand how genes influence behavior. His work demonstrated that mutations in specific genes could affect circadian rhythms, courtship behaviors, and learning in fruit flies. Benzer’s approach was revolutionary, merging genetics with neurobiology and opening new avenues for exploring the genetic basis of behavior. His contributions are chronicled in Jonathan Weiner’s “Time, Love, Memory: A Great Biologist and His Quest for the Origins of Behavior,” a riveting account of Benzer’s quest to uncover the genetic roots of behavior. Lewis Wolpert in his review for the New York Times wrote, “Benzer has many gifts beyond cleverness. He has that special imagination and view of the world that makes a great scientist.”

Since Benzer’s retirement in 1991, new vanguard in genetics research has taken over at CalTech, which continues to be at the forefront of scientific discovery, driven by a new generation of researchers who are unraveling the complexities of the brain and behavior with unprecedented precision.

Elizabeth Hong is a rising star in biology, with her Hong lab investigating how the brain orders and encodes complex odors. Her research focuses on the olfactory system of Drosophila, which, despite its simplicity, shares many features with the olfactory systems of more complex organisms. Hong’s work involves mapping the synapses and neural circuits that process olfactory information, seeking to understand how different odors are represented in the brain and how these representations influence behavior. Her findings could have profound implications for understanding sensory processing and neural coding in general.

David Anderson, another prominent figure at Caltech, studies the neural mechanisms underlying emotions and behaviors. While much of Anderson’s work now focuses on mice as a model organism, the lab’s research explores how different neural circuits contribute to various emotional states, such as fear, aggression, and pleasure, essentially how emotions are encoded in the circuitry and chemistry of the brain, and how they control animal behavior. Using advanced techniques like optogenetics and calcium imaging, Anderson’s lab can manipulate specific neurons and observe the resulting changes in behavior. This work aims to bridge the gap between neural activity and complex emotional behaviors, providing insights into mental health disorders and potential therapeutic targets.

In 2018, the Anderson laboratory identified a cluster of just three neurons in the fly brain that controls a “threat display” — a specific set of behaviors male fruit flies exhibit when facing a male challenger. During a threat display, a fly will extend its wings, make quick, short lunges forward, and continually reorient itself to face the intruder.

California Institute of Technology (Photo: Erik Olsen)

Michael Dickinson is renowned for his studies on the biomechanics and neural control of flight in Drosophila. In the Dickenson Lab, researchers combine behavioral experiments with computational models and robotic simulations, seeking to understand how flies execute complex flight maneuvers with such precision. His work has broader applications in robotics and may inspire new designs for autonomous flying robots.

“He’s a highly original scientist,” Alexander Borst, a department director at the Max Planck Institute of Neurobiology in Germany, told the New York Times.

Dickinson’s investigations also delve into how sensory information is integrated and processed to guide flight behavior, offering insights into the general principles of motor control and sensory integration.

As science advances, Caltech’s Fly Lab’s remind us of the power of curiosity, perseverance, and the endless quest to uncover the mysteries of life. The tiny fruit fly, with its simple elegance, remains a powerful model organism, driving discoveries that illuminate the complexities of biology and behavior. Just recently, scientists (though not at CalTech) unveiled the first fully image of the fruit fly brain. Smaller than a poppy seed, the brain is an astonishingly complex tangle of 140,000 neurons, joined together by more than 490 feet of wiring.

In essence, the fruit fly remains a key to unlocking the wonders and intricacies of life, and in the Fly Labs at Caltech, that spirit of discovery thrives, ensuring that the legacy of Morgan, Lewis, Benzer, and their successors will continue to inspire generations of scientists to come.

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California Coastline Teems with Whale Skeletons

A whale fall recorded off the Coast of California. (Photo: Ocean Exploration Trust/NOAA)

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In the depths of the ocean, when a whale dies, its carcass sinks to the seafloor, creating a unique and rich ecosystem known as a whale fall. Recently, scientists have discovered an extraordinary number of these whale falls off the coast of Los Angeles—over 60 skeletons, a number that surpasses the total found worldwide since 1977. This remarkable density of whale falls has turned the region into a hotspot for marine biologists and ecologists eager to study these deep-sea oases. A recent video (2019) from the Exploration Vessel (E/V) Nautilus captured the excitement as scientists came upon a whale fall on the Davidson Seamount off California.

(The Davidson Seamount, which we have written about before, is a hotbed of biological activity, a deep sea oasis of life, providing habitat for millions of creatures, including the famous gathering of brooding ocotpus (Muusoctopus robustus) known as the Octopus Garden, seen in video here.)

Whale falls provide a dramatic example of how death can foster life. When a whale carcass settles on the ocean floor, it becomes a feast for a variety of marine creatures. Initially, scavengers like hagfish, sharks, and crabs strip the soft tissues. Over time, the remaining bones support a succession of organisms, including bone-eating worms called Osedax, which bore into the bones and extract lipids. These processes can sustain life for decades, creating a complex and dynamic micro-ecosystem.

The discovery off Los Angeles is attributed to several factors. Detailed surveys of the area have been conducted, coupled with the region’s oxygen-poor waters, which slow decomposition and preserve the skeletons longer. Additionally, the lack of heavy sedimentation ensures that the whale bones remain exposed and easier to find. However, the proximity to busy shipping lanes raises concerns about the potential role of ship strikes in the high number of whale deaths.

Eric Terrill and Sophia Merrifield, oceanographers from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UCSD, led surveys in 2021 and 2023 to assess waste spread across 135 square miles of seafloor in the San Pedro Basin. This area, twice the size of Washington, D.C., and located about 15 miles offshore, was used as an industrial dumping ground in the early to mid-1900s. Many of the objects discovered during the survey were barrels containing the banned pesticide DDT and its toxic byproducts.

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Researchers consider it unlikely that the toxic waste and discarded weapons in the area are causing whale deaths. Instead, the high volume of ship traffic is a probable factor, as this area might see more whales killed by ship strikes compared to other regions. The Los Angeles and Long Beach ports, the two busiest in the United States, are located just northeast of the study site, with shipping lanes spreading throughout the area. Additionally, thousands of gray whales migrate through these waters each year, and blue whales regularly feed here, John Calambokidis, a marine biologist with Cascadia Research Collective, a nonprofit in Washington State, told The Atlantic.

Blue whale off the coast of Los Angeles (Photo: Erik Olsen)

Whale falls are crucial not only for the biodiversity they support but also for their role in carbon sequestration. When a whale dies and sinks, it transfers a significant amount of carbon to the deep sea, where it can be stored for centuries. This process helps mitigate the effects of climate change by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The impact is not huge, but scientists say it is significant.

The size of whales plays a significant role in the extent of these ecosystems. Blue whales, the largest animals on Earth, are now seen regularly off the coast. The population of blue whales off the coast of California (as well as Oregon, Washington and Alaska) is known as the Eastern North Pacific blue whale population. This group is one of the largest populations of blue whales globally and migrates between feeding grounds off the coast of California and breeding grounds in the tropical waters of the Pacific Ocean. Their massive bodies provide an abundant food source, supporting a greater diversity and number of species at whale fall sites.

(It should be noted that many articles and Web sites regularly claim that blue whales often reach 100 feet or more. That is false. It is unlikely any blue whale over 80 feet has plied California waters in modern history. John Calambokidis told California Curated that the persistent use of the 100-foot figure can be misleading, especially when the number is used as a reference to all blue whales.)

As many who spend time along the shore know, the waters off California are home to a variety of whale species, including blue whales, humpback whales, gray whales, and fin whales. Blue whale populations, although still endangered, have shown signs of recovery due to conservation efforts. Humpback whales, known for their acrobatic breaches and complex songs, undertake one of the longest migrations of any mammal, traveling between feeding grounds in the Arctic and breeding grounds in Mexico. Fin whales, the second-largest whale species, are also present in these waters, though their populations are also still recovering from historic whaling.

The newfound whale falls off Los Angeles offer a unique opportunity to study these deep-sea ecosystems in greater detail. Researchers are particularly interested in understanding the succession of species that colonize these sites and the overall impact on deep-sea biodiversity. Furthermore, studying whale falls can provide insights into the health of whale populations and the broader marine environment.

The discovery of whale falls in the deep sea reveals the remarkable interdependence of life in our oceans. These massive carcasses, sinking silently to the ocean floor, become rich oases that sustain a diverse array of creatures—from giant scavengers to microscopic bone-eating worms. This cycle of life and death highlights the ocean’s intricate balance, where even in the darkest depths, every organism contributes to a larger, interconnected web. Gaining a deeper understanding of these hidden processes is vital, not just for the sake of marine conservation, but for preserving the overall health and resilience of our planet’s ecosystems.

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JPL and the Voyager Golden Record: Humanity’s A Cosmic Mixtape in Space

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The Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in La Canada Flintridge, California is well-known for building and sending spacecraft far into the cosmos to help us better understand the universe. But the agency was also extensively involved in one of the most ambitious and symbolic projects in the history of space exploration, one that in many ways was more art than science: the Voyager Golden Record.

In 1977, as the twin Voyager spacecraft prepared to journey beyond the confines of our solar system, they carried with them what might be the most profound artifacts ever created by humanity: the Voyager Golden Records. These records, designed to last a billion years, are time capsules intended not for Earthlings but for potential extraterrestrial finders or future humans. Engraved in gold-plated copper discs, the records encapsulate the Earth’s diverse cultural and natural heritage—from music to languages to sounds of nature.

The idea of the Golden Record was developed by a talented team led by Carl Sagan, the renowned astronomer and science communicator. Sagan, alongside other prominent figures such as Frank Drake, Ann Druyan, science journalist Jon Lomberg, and Linda Salzman Sagan, crafted a selection that aimed to represent the entirety of Earth. The content ranged from classical music by Bach and Beethoven to greetings in 55 languages, natural sounds like thunderstorms and whales, and a diverse set of 115 images depicting life and culture on Earth.

But producing a record that could survive the harsh environment of space, while also being understandable and playable by beings of unknown technology, posed unique challenges. This is where the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) stepped in, playing a pivotal role in transforming this ambitious vision into a tangible, durable artifact capable of traversing the cosmos.

Inspection of the engraving of the Voyager Golden Record.
Photo: NASA/JPL-Cal Tech

JPL, managed by Caltech under a NASA contract, was primarily responsible for the construction and operation of the Voyager spacecraft. Their expertise was crucial not just in the scientific instrumentation and engineering of the spacecraft but also in integrating the Golden Records. The lab’s engineers worked meticulously to ensure that the records were equipped with everything needed for potential playback: a cartridge, a needle, and symbolic instructions detailing their use. These instructions, etched onto the record’s cover, provided a universal map indicating Earth’s location in relation to pulsar stars, which are highly stable and can be used as galactic landmarks.

JPL’s involvement extended to the actual physical preparation of the records. They coordinated closely with RCA Records to produce the master disc from which the Voyager records were replicated. The final products were then plated in gold and encased in a protective aluminum jacket, designed to withstand the vacuum of space, cosmic rays, and extreme temperatures.

The technical contributions of JPL ensured that the Golden Records were not only a feat of cultural expression but also a marvel of scientific and engineering ingenuity. By equipping the Voyager spacecraft with these messages, JPL helped bridge the human desire to explore and communicate with the tangible reality of space travel. The records, mounted aboard Voyagers 1 and 2, continue to be ambassadors of Earth, carrying sounds, music, and images intended to convey the story of our world to whoever, or whatever, might find them.

Today, both Voyager spacecraft, with their Golden Records, have entered interstellar space, marking them as the most distant human-made objects in existence. They serve as reminders of humanity’s ambition to reach beyond our immediate grasp and to communicate across vast cosmic distances. JPL’s role in this historic endeavor highlights the profound connection between human creativity and technological advancement, ensuring that our message to the cosmos will endure long after the original voices have faded.

JPL written on the Voyager Golden Record
Photo: NASA/JPL-Cal Tech

As these records voyage through the cosmos, they remind us not just of where we have been, but also of the far reaches that our curiosity can take us. Through the combined efforts of visionaries like Carl Sagan and the engineering prowess of JPL, the Voyager Golden Record stands as a testament to the best of human knowledge, culture, and technological achievement.

The Voyager Golden Records are phonograph records, much like the vinyl records used to listen to music before digital media became widespread. They are constructed from copper discs coated in gold to withstand the harsh environment of space. Each record is encased in a protective aluminum jacket, along with a cartridge and a needle. Instructions in symbolic language explain the origin of the spacecraft and indicate how the record should be played. The playback speed (16 2/3 revolutions per minute) is much slower than typical records, which typically spin at 33 1/3 or 45 rpm.

The content of the Golden Record is a meticulously curated selection intended to represent the diversity of life and culture on Earth:

Sounds of Earth: The records include audio of nature sounds like thunder, wind, and animals (including the songs of birds and whales). Human sounds like footsteps, a heartbeat, and laughter are also embedded, capturing the biological and social essence of Earth.

The DNA structure magnified, light hit image is one of the pictures electronically placed on the phonograph records which are carried onboard the Voyager 1 and 2 spacecraft. Credit: Jon Lomberg

Musical Selections: There are 27 musical tracks from different cultures and eras, ranging from classical pieces by Bach and Beethoven to traditional songs from various cultures, including a Navajo chant and a Peruvian wedding song. These selections were intended to showcase the diversity of musical expression on Earth.

Greetings in 55 Languages: A variety of spoken greetings from “Hello” in English to ancient languages like Akkadian. The inclusion of a broad range of languages aims to depict the linguistic diversity of humanity.

Images: The record also contains 115 analog-encoded photographs and diagrams. These images show a wide range of subjects, including humans of different sexes and races, everyday activities, scientific knowledge like mathematical definitions, and the Solar System. The intent was to offer a visual summary of our planet and its inhabitants.

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Message from the UN Secretary-General and the President of the United States: There are also printed messages from prominent global leaders at the time, including U.S. President Jimmy Carter and United Nations Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim.

Sounds of Human Origin: Beyond natural and environmental sounds, the record also includes a montage of the sounds of Earth, a screaming chimpanzee, a medley of human-originated noises like tools, vehicles, and a kiss, among others.

The idea behind the Voyager Golden Record is not just to communicate where and who we are but also to share a message of hope and peace with any possible recipient, even if that recipient is far in the future. The chances of the Voyager spacecraft actually being found by extraterrestrial life are slim, but the Golden Record serves as a profound gesture of goodwill and a testament to the human spirit’s longing to reach out and explore the universe.

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Feathers on the Flyway: Unraveling Avian Mysteries at Bear Divide with the Moore Lab

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“Personally, I really think it’s one of the best birding spots in the world,” Ryan Terrill, science director at the Klamath Bird Observatory.

Within a 45 minute drive from the urban chaos of downtown Los Angeles, lies a natural, ornithological marvel: Bear Divide, a vital corridor for the annual migration of numerous bird species. Every year — roughly between March 15 and June 15, with peak migration between April 10 and May 20 — thousands of birds funnel through the narrow pass. The divide is a small dip in the otherwise impregnable San Gabriel mountains, allowing birds in the midst of their migration to pass through safely at relatively low altitudes. This area is not just a haven for bird enthusiasts but also a critical research site, especially for the team from the Moore Lab of Zoology at Occidental College, who have been delving into the intricacies of these migratory patterns.

The Moore Lab of Zoology is renowned for its extensive bird specimen collection, one of the largest of its kind in the world for Mexican birds.

Part of the large bird collection at the Moore Lab at Occidental College in Pasadena (Erik Olsen)

Bear Divide is strategically positioned along the Pacific Flyway, a significant north-south migratory route used by birds traveling between Alaska and Patagonia. The geographical features of the San Gabriels provide an ideal resting and feeding ground for these birds, making Bear Divide a crucial stopover during their long journeys. It’s this unique combination of location and topography that makes Bear Divide an essential component of avian migration.

The discovery of Bear Divide was a lucky happenstance. A bird researcher was conducting overnight monitoring in the spring of 2016, and when morning came, he noticed legions of small songbirds whizzing past his monitoring spot. His report caught the attention of postdoc bird scientist Ryan Terrill at Moore Lab at the time, and he began an effort to monitor the birds. Terrill and his team would ultimately record as many as 20,000 birds in a single morning.

“It really is overwhelming to stand on the road and have 5,000 birds of 80 species fly by your knees in a morning,” Terrill said. The effort has continued to this day with startling results. Terrill has since left and is now the science director at the Klamath Bird Observatory.

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“Last year 2023 we counted 53,511 birds of 140 species from February to May,” said John McCormack, a professor of biology and the Director and Curator of the Moore Laboratory of Zoology. “And of course, we missed many thousands more because most travel at night. It’s easy to say that there are hundreds of thousands of birds passing through Bear Divide.”

As many as 13,000 western tanagers, lazuli buntings, chipping sparrows, hermit warblers, orioles, grosbeaks and warblers pass through Bear Divide on a single day. Why they do so, is not entirely understood. The unusual topography of Bear Divide essentially serves as a funnel for the migrating birds, with many of them shooting through the gap just a meter or two above ground.

“Personally, I really think it’s one of the best birding spots in the world,” Terrill told the LA Times.

McCormack says that the “ultimate goal is to better understand the Pacific Flyway and how it’s used, especially by small terrestrial birds. Little is known about their movements because they are hard to see and usually travel at night.”

Because many of the species sighted at Bear Divide are in steep decline. The lab says that year-to-year counts will help set a baseline for future trends that can be associated with weather, climate, and urbanization. “Tracking individual birds will give granular knowledge on how migratory birds use the landscape, which helps individuals and homeowners create corridors for them to travel,” says McCormack.

The best time to catch the show at Bear Divide is late winter early Spring. McCormack says Cliff Swallows and Lawrence’s Goldfinch are some of the early movers in March, and that by May, streaking by are Yellow Warblers, sunset-faced Western Tanagers, and bright blue Lazuli Buntings.

“There is so much we still don’t know about these birds and their world,” Lauren Hill, the site’s lead bird bander, told the Los Angeles Times. “For example, no one knows where they were before showing up here after sunrise.”

Lazuli Bunting zips past the camera at Bear Divide (Ryan Terrill)

The team is counting birds in order to establish a baseline of the populations coming through Bear Divide so they can understand how much we are changing the environment and what effect that may have on bird populations, many of which are in severe decline.

Their research spans a variety of topics, including how climate change is impacting migration routes and the effects of urbanization on bird populations. The lab has recently begun a program to put satellite trackers on birds at Bear Divide to follow individual birds, providing deep insight into their migration and resting patterns. This research is not only pivotal in understanding avian behavior but also crucial in shaping conservation policies.

One of the most fascinating aspects of Bear Divide is the sheer variety of bird species it attracts. From the diminutive hummingbirds to the impressive birds of prey, each species adds a unique dimension to the study of migration. The Moore lab’s findings have shed light on the varied responses of different species to environmental changes, offering a glimpse into the broader ecological shifts occurring across the globe.

One compelling result of the Moore Lab’s study at Bear Divide suggests that the peak of a particular species’ migration is correlated with the latitude of its breeding site. Species that breed at higher latitudes migrated through Bear Divide at later dates. It’s also unusual in the West for species to migrate during the day. Most species of birds using the Pacific Flyway are known to migrate at night.

In addition to its scientific contributions, the Moore lab is also known for its involvement in citizen science. Collaborating with local birdwatchers and volunteers, the lab extends its research capabilities and cultivates a community actively engaged in bird conservation. This collaborative approach not only enhances the breadth of their research but also underscores the importance of community involvement in conservation efforts.

Bear Divide is on public land, so anyone with a legitimate research project can get permission to work there. UCLA graduate student Kelsey Reckling, who has worked as a counter at Bear Divide since the beginning, is leading the counting efforts this Spring to understand changes in numbers of birds and species across years. Cal State L.A. graduate student Lauren Hill lea ds the group of bird banders, who catch some of the birds and record data, attaching a lightweight metal band around one leg and releasing them. Her lab mate Tania Romero is putting small, lightweight tracking devices on Yellow Warblers, which send signals to a network of tracking (MOTUS) towers across the continent.

Many bird species are under serious threat around the globe from a number of different impacts, including climate change, pesticides and habitat loss. Birds play a critical role in the health of our planet. They regulate ecosystems by preying on insects, pollinating plants, and spreading seeds. Healthy ecosystems are important for breathable air, food, and a regulated climate.

According to a 2019 study, nearly 3 billion breeding birds have been lost in North America and the European Union since 1970. That’s about 30% of the bird population in North America. The 2022 State of the Birds Report for the United States found that bird declines are continuing in almost every habitat, except wetlands. Protecting birds’ habitats, and migration routes and reducing mortality through conservation efforts are crucial to ensuring the survival of these magnificent creatures.

The research conducted at Bear Divide by the Moore lab transcends academic interests, emphasizing the interconnectivity of ecosystems and underscoring the need to preserve natural migration corridors amid urban expansion. The insights gained here are invaluable to both the scientific community and conservation efforts, highlighting the need for a balanced approach to wildlife preservation and ecological sustainability.

“What’s magical about Bear Divide is that it’s the first real place to see small, migrating birds at eye level in daylight hours,” says McCormack. “I don’t want to oversell it: it’s still a lot of small birds zinging by in a wide open place and it takes a while to get good at identifying them. But by seeing them out there, struggling against the wind and the cold, but still making progress, it gives you a real sense of how amazing their journeys are–and how we shouldn’t make them harder if there’s anything we can do about it.”

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