California’s Monterey Formation: Unraveling the Secrets of a Fossil-Rich, Oil-Bearing Geological Wonder

Monterey Formation rocks near Newport Beach (Erik Olsen)

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California’s Monterey Formation is one of the most fascinating geological formations in the United States. Stretching along the California coast from San Francisco to Los Angeles, this formation is notable for its incredible diversity of siliceous rocks—rocks rich in silica, such as shale, chert, diatomite, and porcelanite. While these rocks are interesting to geologists, the Monterey Formation is also significant for its potential to explain the origins of petroleum deposits that have fueled California’s economy for over a century. NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory once called it “California’s primary petroleum source rock.”

Fracture network of joints and cross-joints exposed on bedding surface of siliceous shale. Note linked, larger-aperture fracture in center with oxidation rim. Montaña de Oro State Park. (NASA JPL)

At the heart of the Monterey Formation’s geology is the unique composition of many different types of rock that come together in such a way that they create an ideal environment for trapping oil. The intricate layering of organic-rich shales, siliceous rocks, carbonates, and diatomites forms a complex network of porous and permeable spaces, allowing oil to migrate into these reservoirs. Over time, these rocks act like natural sponges, effectively capturing and holding large quantities of oil within their formations, making the Monterey Formation one of California’s most significant petroleum sources. It is estimated that over 38 billion barrels of oil have been produced to date from fields whose source rock is the Monterey.

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Diatomite, a light, porous rock formed from the fossilized remains of diatoms, is a dominant feature. Diatoms, microscopic algae with silica-based cell walls, thrived in nutrient-rich waters, leading to the thick layers of sediments that later became diatomite. Chert, another key rock type in the formation, is formed from the recrystallization of biogenic silica, adding to the complexity of the geological record. Interspersed with these are organic-rich shales, which contain substantial amounts of organic material called kerogen. Over millions of years, kerogen undergoes a biological transformation becoming the oil and gas that now serve as the backbone of California’s petroleum industry (see our story on the history of the Long Beach oil industry).

The Monterey Formation displays a fascinating and unusual mixture of geological deposits, from deep ocean basins to shallow continental shelves. During the Miocene, upwelling currents along the California coast brought nutrient-rich waters to the surface, fostering high biological productivity and depositing vast amounts of biogenic silica, a form of silicon dioxide (SiO₂) that is produced by living organisms. Periods of fluctuating sea levels, driven by climate changes and tectonic shifts, further shaped the environment. During low sea levels, parts of the continental shelf were exposed, allowing for erosion from wind and sun. These would shift to periods of high sea levels, which allowed for denser, deep-water sedimentation. In some layers, the presence of evaporites—minerals that form from the evaporation of water—suggests extensive episodes of arid conditions, similar to what we are experiencing now with California’s recurring periods of drought.

Offshore oil platforms along California’s coast drill into the Monterey Formation, either tapping directly into its fractured shale or extracting oil that has migrated into more porous sandstone reservoirs. (Photo: Erik Olsen)

Much of the pioneering research on the geology, formation, and unique composition of the Monterey Formation was conducted by the late Robert Garrison, a distinguished professor of oceanography at the University of California, Santa Cruz. Garrison was considered the foremost expert on the Monterey Foundation, and his work was instrumental in revealing how the Monterey Formation’s diatomaceous and phosphatic deposits were shaped by a combination of oceanographic upwelling, climatic shifts, and tectonic activity during the Miocene epoch.

Petroleum geologists find the Monterey Formation especially intriguing because it serves as both a source and a reservoir for oil and gas, allowing them to better understand the processes of oil and gas generation, migration, and accumulation, as well as to develop more efficient extraction methods to maximize its economic potential. They are also quite beautiful. Walk along the beach near Crystal Cove in Orange County, for example, and examples of Monterey Formation rocks abound.

Monterey Formation rocks near Little Corona in Newport Beach (Erik Olsen)

Oil is formed from the remains of ancient marine organisms, such as plankton and algae, that were buried under layers of sediment and subjected to heat and pressure over millions of years, transforming them into hydrocarbons. Some of these hydrocarbons migrated into more permeable rocks, creating substantial oil fields that have been exploited for decades in Southern California. Certain layers of the Monterey Formation, particularly the fractured chert and dolomitic sections, also serve as excellent reservoirs due to their porosity and permeability, allowing them to store oil and gas for long periods of time.

Beyond its geological and economic importance, the Monterey Formation is a treasure trove for paleontologists. Its layers preserve a variety of marine fossils, including diatoms, radiolarians, foraminifera, and coccolithophores. These microfossils offer a detailed look at past ocean conditions, helping scientists reconstruct the climatic and oceanographic history of the Miocene epoch. Additionally, the formation contains fossils of larger marine vertebrates, such as whales, seals, and fish, providing further insight into the ecosystems of ancient oceans.

Microscope image of microfossils and organic matter in Monterey rocks. (Cal State Long Beach)

However, the Monterey Formation is not just a source of knowledge and resources; it also presents challenges, particularly in terms of potential environmental harm and geohazards like landslides. The soft, diatomaceous earth layers within the formation are prone to landslides, especially when water-saturated or fractured by tectonic action. This makes some coastal areas of California, where the Monterey Formation is exposed, particularly vulnerable to slope instability, posing risks for construction and development. Many recent news stories have documented the increasing rate at which the California coast is tumbling into the sea. An excellent recent book on the subject is Rosanna Xia’s California Against the Sea: Visions for Our Vanishing Coastline.

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California’s geology is a remarkable mosaic that tells a story of immense geological diversity and dynamic processes. Among its many treasures, the Monterey Formation stands out as a geological marvel—its intricate layers, rich fossil beds, and significant economic potential continue to captivate scientists and researchers from around the world. This unique formation is more than just rock; it is a time capsule that preserves millions of years of Earth’s history, from ancient marine ecosystems to dramatic shifts in climate and tectonic activity. As geologists, paleontologists, and environmental scientists delve deeper into its mysteries, the Monterey Formation reveals invaluable clues about the past while shaping our understanding of California’s ever-evolving landscape. It serves as a profound reminder of the powerful forces that have sculpted one of the most geologically varied regions on the planet and continues to inspire exploration and discovery in the fields of Earth science.

Beyond the Beach: How Santa Monica Became Home to the RAND Corporation, America’s Premier Defense Think Tank

RAND’s current headquarters in Santa Monica (Erik Olsen)

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When people think of Santa Monica, images of sun-soaked beaches, the iconic pier, and leisurely strolls along the Pacific Coast Highway often come to mind. It’s a city synonymous with surf, sand, and a laid-back California lifestyle. Yet, bunkered within this seaside haven is an institution far removed from the carefree spirit of the shore: RAND Corporation, one of the world’s most influential think tanks, with deep ties to the Department of Defense. While tourists flock to the hot sands and the 3rd Street Promenade, behind the walls of RAND’s headquarters, some of the nation’s brightest minds have quietly shaped U.S. policy and technology for decades.

The RAND Corporation, originally an acronym for “Research ANd Development,” is a think tank that has had a profound impact on policy and decision-making in various fields, including national security, science, technology, and social policy.

RAND emerged from the devastation of World War II, inspired by the success of the Manhattan Project, a $2 billion effort that produced the first atomic bomb. Seeing this achievement, five-star Air Force General Henry “Hap” Arnold recognized the need for a group of brilliant minds to keep America at the forefront of technological innovation. In 1946, Arnold assembled a small team of scientists with $10 million in funding to create RAND, short for Research and Development. He persuaded a family friend, aircraft mogul Donald Douglas, to host the project at his factory in Santa Monica.

Air Force General Henry “Hap” Arnold (USAF)

Within months, RAND captured the attention of academics, politicians, and military leaders with its groundbreaking report, “Preliminary Design of an Experimental World-Circling Spaceship.” At a time when rocket science was in its infancy, the think tank’s vision of an orbiting space station was revolutionary. The report not only detailed the type of fuel needed and the feasibility of constructing the station but also highlighted its potential to revolutionize weather forecasting, long-distance communication, and most crucially, its ability to intimidate America’s adversaries. If America could launch a satellite into space, what else might it achieve?

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Although President Truman decided against pursuing the space station, the military quickly embraced RAND. Thanks to Hap Arnold’s connections, the Air Force became RAND’s primary contractor, and the think tank began consulting on a wide range of projects, from propeller turbines to missile defense systems. The influx of contracts soon overwhelmed RAND, prompting the need to hire hundreds of additional researchers. In its recruitment ads, RAND proudly highlighted its intellectual pedigree, even drawing a direct line from its president, Frank Collbohm, to Isaac Newton. Whether or not that claim held water, the institute rapidly earned a reputation as the go-to place for envisioning innovative strategies to wage wars and deter adversaries.

In fact, in 1960s the Soviet newspaper Pravda nicknamed RAND “the academy of science and death and destruction.” American media outlets preferred to call them the “wizards of Armageddon.” The Atlantic called them “the paramilitary academy of United States strategic thinking”.

RAND’s strategic theories, including the concept of Mutually Assured Destruction (MAD), were born from the devastating potential of atomic weapons, aiming to prevent nuclear war through deterrence.

But where is RAND located? When RAND was first established in 1946, it was housed in a building provided by Donald Douglas at his aircraft factory in Santa Monica. However, as RAND grew, it eventually moved to its own dedicated headquarters.

In 1953, RAND moved to a new building on a site provided by the city of Santa Monica. This building was designed specifically for RAND’s needs and became a recognizable landmark near the beach. In 2004, RAND moved again to a newly constructed headquarters in Santa Monica, located at 1776 Main Street. This modern facility was designed to better accommodate RAND’s evolving research activities and staff. So while RAND has always been in Santa Monica, it has moved to different buildings over the years.

Hand-tinted photo of the original RAND building at 1700 Main Street in Santa Monica, California, circa 1960s
RAND Archives

During the early years, RAND’s work was heavily focused on military and defense issues, reflecting the geopolitical climate of the Cold War. One of RAND’s most significant early contributions was the development of game theory and its application to military strategy. Pioneers like John Nash, who would later win the Nobel Prize in Economics, conducted seminal work at RAND during this period.

RAND’s analysts played a crucial role in the development of nuclear strategy, including the doctrine of mutually assured destruction (MAD). The think tank’s work on systems analysis, a method for evaluating complex systems, became a cornerstone of U.S. defense planning. RAND’s analysts developed strategies for deterrence, nuclear war scenarios, and the implications of various levels of nuclear arsenals.

“This was a very smart bunch,” said Ellsberg, just before his death on June 16, 2023. “The smartest group of people I ever did associate with. It turns out, by the way, intelligence is not a very good guarantee of wisdom.”
Daniel Ellsberg

Two key figures at the time, Albert Wohlstetter and Herman Kahn, were both pivotal figures at the RAND Corporation, where they contributed significantly to the development of U.S. nuclear strategy during the Cold War. Wohlstetter, known for his rigorous and analytical approach, emphasized the importance of maintaining a credible deterrent to Soviet aggression, which he articulated in his influential work, “The Delicate Balance of Terror.” Herman Kahn, another RAND was renowned for his work on nuclear warfare scenarios and is often credited with popularizing the concept of “mutual assured destruction” (MAD).

Their paths intersected with Daniel Ellsberg, who also worked at RAND as an analyst. Ellsberg, who later became famous for leaking the Pentagon Papers, was influenced by both Wohlstetter’s strategic insights and Kahn’s scenarios, but the resulting plans for how America would manage a nuclear war with the Russians terrified Ellsberg. As he recounted in the Netflix Documentary Turning Point, Ellsberg revealed that serious plans at RAND estimated a nuclear war with Russia and China could result in 600 million casualties, highlighting the catastrophic consequences that were considered in Cold War strategic planning. These revelations, along with his evolving moral stance, eventually led Ellsberg to become a vocal critic of U.S. military policies.

“This was a very smart bunch,” said Ellsberg, before his death on June 16, 2023. “The smartest group of people I ever did associate with. It turns out, by the way, intelligence is not a very good guarantee of wisdom.”

By the 1960s, RAND began to diversify its research agenda. The think tank started to tackle a wider array of issues, including healthcare, education, and social policy. In 1968, RAND established the Health Insurance Experiment, a landmark study that explored the effects of different levels of health insurance coverage on medical spending and health outcomes. This study had a lasting impact on health policy and remains one of the largest and most comprehensive studies of its kind.

Although Silicon Valley is given most of the credit, RAND also contributed to the development of the internet. In the 1960s, RAND researchers, including Paul Baran, were instrumental in developing the concept of packet-switching networks, which later became a fundamental technology underlying the internet. The key idea (which Baran worked on with others) was to develop a communication system that could withstand potential disruptions, such as those caused by a nuclear attack. His concept of breaking data into small packets and routing them through a decentralized network was groundbreaking, ensuring that information could still be transmitted even if parts of the network were compromised.

Paul Baran presents his work at a RAND in 2009
Photo by Diane Baldwin/RAND

In the 1980s and 1990s, RAND continued to expand its global influence. The organization opened offices in Europe and started collaborating with international governments and institutions. RAND’s research began to encompass global security, international development, and global health issues. RAND also pioneered the study of terrorism in the 1970s, well before the United Nations had even defined the term. Today, the RAND Terrorism Chronology Database, tracking all terrorist acts since 1968, is a crucial resource for the military and government.

One notable area of RAND’s recent work is in the field of education. RAND has conducted extensive research on educational policies and practices, including studies on school choice, teacher effectiveness, and the impacts of educational technology.

Despite its many contributions, RAND has faced criticisms and challenges. Some have argued that the think tank’s close ties to the military and government agencies may bias its research. Others have pointed out that, like any large organization, RAND’s influence can sometimes lead to the prioritization of certain agendas over others.

A British MQ-9A Reaper operating over Afghanistan in 2009 (Wikipedia)

One of RAND’s more controversial recent activities involved its research on U.S. drone warfare. Critics have raised concerns that RAND’s analyses have sometimes downplayed the ethical and civilian impact of drone strikes, focusing instead on the strategic advantages for the U.S. military. This has sparked debates about whether RAND’s close ties to the Department of Defense might influence the objectivity of its findings, particularly in areas where the moral and humanitarian implications are significant.

As of the most recent data, RAND Corporation employs approximately 1,950 people, including researchers, analysts, and support staff. The think tank operates with an annual budget of around $390 million, funding a wide array of research projects across various disciplines, including national security, health, education, and more. These figures can fluctuate based on the specific projects and funding sources in any given year.

Despite concerns about its influence, the RAND Corporation has remained a significant player in policy research. Its ability to adapt and broaden its focus has helped it stay relevant over the years. RAND’s work continues to inform policies that affect many aspects of public life, reflecting the ongoing role of independent research in policy-making.

So the next time you take a trip to the beach, take a moment to consider that just a short distance from the waves, some of the nation’s most critical and controversial policy decisions are being shaped at RAND’s headquarters in Santa Monica.

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California Coastline Teems with Whale Skeletons

A whale fall recorded off the Coast of California. (Photo: Ocean Exploration Trust/NOAA)

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In the depths of the ocean, when a whale dies, its carcass sinks to the seafloor, creating a unique and rich ecosystem known as a whale fall. Recently, scientists have discovered an extraordinary number of these whale falls off the coast of Los Angeles—over 60 skeletons, a number that surpasses the total found worldwide since 1977. This remarkable density of whale falls has turned the region into a hotspot for marine biologists and ecologists eager to study these deep-sea oases. A recent video (2019) from the Exploration Vessel (E/V) Nautilus captured the excitement as scientists came upon a whale fall on the Davidson Seamount off California.

(The Davidson Seamount, which we have written about before, is a hotbed of biological activity, a deep sea oasis of life, providing habitat for millions of creatures, including the famous gathering of brooding ocotpus (Muusoctopus robustus) known as the Octopus Garden, seen in video here.)

Whale falls provide a dramatic example of how death can foster life. When a whale carcass settles on the ocean floor, it becomes a feast for a variety of marine creatures. Initially, scavengers like hagfish, sharks, and crabs strip the soft tissues. Over time, the remaining bones support a succession of organisms, including bone-eating worms called Osedax, which bore into the bones and extract lipids. These processes can sustain life for decades, creating a complex and dynamic micro-ecosystem.

The discovery off Los Angeles is attributed to several factors. Detailed surveys of the area have been conducted, coupled with the region’s oxygen-poor waters, which slow decomposition and preserve the skeletons longer. Additionally, the lack of heavy sedimentation ensures that the whale bones remain exposed and easier to find. However, the proximity to busy shipping lanes raises concerns about the potential role of ship strikes in the high number of whale deaths.

Eric Terrill and Sophia Merrifield, oceanographers from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UCSD, led surveys in 2021 and 2023 to assess waste spread across 135 square miles of seafloor in the San Pedro Basin. This area, twice the size of Washington, D.C., and located about 15 miles offshore, was used as an industrial dumping ground in the early to mid-1900s. Many of the objects discovered during the survey were barrels containing the banned pesticide DDT and its toxic byproducts.

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Researchers consider it unlikely that the toxic waste and discarded weapons in the area are causing whale deaths. Instead, the high volume of ship traffic is a probable factor, as this area might see more whales killed by ship strikes compared to other regions. The Los Angeles and Long Beach ports, the two busiest in the United States, are located just northeast of the study site, with shipping lanes spreading throughout the area. Additionally, thousands of gray whales migrate through these waters each year, and blue whales regularly feed here, John Calambokidis, a marine biologist with Cascadia Research Collective, a nonprofit in Washington State, told The Atlantic.

Blue whale off the coast of Los Angeles (Photo: Erik Olsen)

Whale falls are crucial not only for the biodiversity they support but also for their role in carbon sequestration. When a whale dies and sinks, it transfers a significant amount of carbon to the deep sea, where it can be stored for centuries. This process helps mitigate the effects of climate change by reducing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The impact is not huge, but scientists say it is significant.

The size of whales plays a significant role in the extent of these ecosystems. Blue whales, the largest animals on Earth, are now seen regularly off the coast. The population of blue whales off the coast of California (as well as Oregon, Washington and Alaska) is known as the Eastern North Pacific blue whale population. This group is one of the largest populations of blue whales globally and migrates between feeding grounds off the coast of California and breeding grounds in the tropical waters of the Pacific Ocean. Their massive bodies provide an abundant food source, supporting a greater diversity and number of species at whale fall sites.

(It should be noted that many articles and Web sites regularly claim that blue whales often reach 100 feet or more. That is false. It is unlikely any blue whale over 80 feet has plied California waters in modern history. John Calambokidis told California Curated that the persistent use of the 100-foot figure can be misleading, especially when the number is used as a reference to all blue whales.)

As many who spend time along the shore know, the waters off California are home to a variety of whale species, including blue whales, humpback whales, gray whales, and fin whales. Blue whale populations, although still endangered, have shown signs of recovery due to conservation efforts. Humpback whales, known for their acrobatic breaches and complex songs, undertake one of the longest migrations of any mammal, traveling between feeding grounds in the Arctic and breeding grounds in Mexico. Fin whales, the second-largest whale species, are also present in these waters, though their populations are also still recovering from historic whaling.

The newfound whale falls off Los Angeles offer a unique opportunity to study these deep-sea ecosystems in greater detail. Researchers are particularly interested in understanding the succession of species that colonize these sites and the overall impact on deep-sea biodiversity. Furthermore, studying whale falls can provide insights into the health of whale populations and the broader marine environment.

The discovery of whale falls in the deep sea reveals the remarkable interdependence of life in our oceans. These massive carcasses, sinking silently to the ocean floor, become rich oases that sustain a diverse array of creatures—from giant scavengers to microscopic bone-eating worms. This cycle of life and death highlights the ocean’s intricate balance, where even in the darkest depths, every organism contributes to a larger, interconnected web. Gaining a deeper understanding of these hidden processes is vital, not just for the sake of marine conservation, but for preserving the overall health and resilience of our planet’s ecosystems.

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The Pacific Coast Highway (PCH): Icon of American Scenic Roadways

Pacific Coast Highway near Big Sur (Erik Olsen)

The Pacific Coast Highway (PCH), also known as California State Route 1, is one of the most iconic roads in the United States, renowned for its breathtaking views of the Pacific Ocean and rugged coastline. This scenic highway stretches over 650 miles from Dana Point in Orange County in Southern California to Mendocino County in Northern California, offering travelers unparalleled vistas and a quintessential Californian road trip experience. While some suggest that PCH runs from Mexico to Canada, that is mistaken. U.S. Route 101 continues north from California, running along the coast through Oregon and Washington, up to the Olympic Peninsula. That said, it is still the longest state route in California and the second-longest in the US after Montana Highway 200. The story of its construction is as dramatic and intricate as the landscape it traverses.

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The origins of the Pacific Coast Highway date back to the early 20th century, when the automobile was becoming an essential part of American life. The idea for a coastal highway was initially conceived to connect the state’s isolated coastal communities and improve access to California’s scenic beauty. The concept gained traction in the 1910s and 1920s, and construction began in earnest in the 1930s, to provide jobs during the Great Depression.

Lovely aerial of Pacific Coast Highway in Central California

“It took decades to get the highway built,” Carina Monica Montoya told the Los Angeles Times. Montoya is the author of, “Pacific Coast Highway In Los Angeles County” (The History Press, 2014).

The construction of the PCH was an engineering marvel, given the challenging terrain it had to navigate. The road had to be carved out of steep cliffs, cross numerous rivers, and be supported by bridges spanning deep ravines. One of the most significant and iconic portions of the highway, the Big Sur section, presented formidable challenges. This stretch of the road, which runs between San Simeon and Carmel, required extensive blasting and drilling into the rugged coastal mountains. The effort was spearheaded by the California Division of Highways (now CalTrans), with a workforce comprising both state employees and workers from the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), a New Deal program.

Key figures in the design and construction of the PCH included engineers and architects who had to innovate continuously to address the formidable natural obstacles. One notable engineer was John D. Isaacs, a prominent builder who contributed to the design and construction of several key bridges along the PCH, including the famous Bixby Creek Bridge. His innovative approach to bridge engineering helped overcome the difficulties presented by the steep canyons and coastal bluffs.

The Pacific Coast Highway took decades to complete fully, with different sections being opened to the public at various times. The Big Sur segment, for example, was officially completed in 1937 after nearly 18 years of labor. The total cost of constructing the highway is difficult to pinpoint precisely, given its piecemeal development, but it ran into tens of millions of dollars—an immense sum at the time.

The Pacific Coast Highway near Santa Monica, California, circa 1930s.

Several colorful characters also play a role in the highway’s history. The Pacific Coast Highway might not exist today if May Rindge, a resolute landowner, had succeeded in her long battle against the county. Since at least the 1890s, a primitive road, often submerged at high tide, hugged the rocky coast between Santa Monica and Malibu, passing under a natural arch and ending at a locked gate on Rindge’s 17,000-acre ranch.

As the owner of Rancho Topanga Malibu Sequit, Rindge was determined to protect her property. She and her late husband had long fought to keep homesteaders off their land. In 1906, she even forced the Southern Pacific Railroad to divert its Santa Barbara line around Malibu and through the San Fernando Valley.

In 1907, when the county proposed extending the coastal road through Malibu, Rindge posted armed guards at the entrances to her ranch and contested the county’s power of eminent domain in court. A stalemate ensued for years, but the road’s prospects improved in the early 1920s when it was included in the planned Roosevelt Highway. In 1923, the U.S. Supreme Court upheld the county’s right to appropriate the land for the highway, and in 1925, a superior court judge granted the county title to the right-of-way in exchange for $107,289, finally ending the dispute.

The book “The King and Queen of Malibu: The True Story of the Battle for Paradise” by David K. Randall (2016) tells the story of Ringe and a wonderful history of Malibu.

Today, the Pacific Coast Highway is one of the most famous and iconic strips of road in the world. Featured in countless commercials as well as movies and TV shoots, sections of PCH are immediately recognizable. Of course, it helps a lot that the highway in in such close proximity to legions of DPs (Directors of Photography) who live in Los Angeles and work in commercials and film. Shooting on the highway is an easy day trip from LA and Hollywood, although it can be difficult to get permits to film on the highway given it is such a busy working road.

That said, the highway faces significant challenges due to climate change and coastal erosion. Rising sea levels and increased storm activity are accelerating the natural erosion processes along California’s coast. This has led to frequent landslides and road closures, particularly in the Big Sur region. One notable event was the massive landslide in 2017 at Mud Creek, which buried a section of the highway under 40 feet of debris, closing it for over a year and requiring extensive repairs. A timelapse of the landslide produced by the United States Geological Service can be seen here.

The Pacific Coast Highway in Newport Beach (Erik Olsen)

The New Yorker ran a piece on the concerns about the highway’s future viability as a means to travel long distances along the coast.

The Washington Post wrote back in 2021, “the engineering folly of a road built on sheer cliffs has meant that closures are annual events — the “whens,” not “ifs” — for the people and the economy it supports.”

The most recent slide to afflict the region took place in April 2024 following heavy rains, when large chunks of the road broke off, tumbling down a cliff and into the ocean near Rock Creek Bridge. Safety officials closed off about 40 miles of road as crews worked to assess the damage and stabilize the road.

Rosanna Xia, a reporter for the Los Angeles Times, masterfully chronicles the problems facing PCH and the California coast in general due to climate change and erosion in her book California Against the Sea: Visions for Our Vanishing Coastline.

Although the Pacific Coast Highway remains one of the greatest road trip routes of all time, the challenges in maintaining its full length are significant for the state and its residents. Despite its enduring popularity, the highway often operates in sections due to frequent closures and repairs caused by natural disasters like landslides, erosion, and wildfires. These ongoing issues demand substantial resources and effort to keep the entire highway operational, making its full-length service a constant struggle.

Still, it remains a pretty excellent place to take a drive. As the Boss once put it, roll down the window and let the wind blow back your hair.

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Julia Platt was the Unwavering Force Behind Monterey’s Ecological Conservation

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In the 18th century, when Spanish and French explorers ventured along the northern California coast they encountered Monterey Bay and marveled at the astonishing ecological abundance of this 25-mile wide bite mark in the land. The shores buzzed with the lively interactions of sea birds, sea otters played amidst the luxuriant kelp beds, and the waters teemed with many species of whale.

Yet, by the late 19th and early 20th centuries, this rich tapestry of marine life and biodiversity had largely been erased, replaced by the destructive industrial operations of sardine canneries. These factories, though they brought economic activity and prosperity to a few, also introduced a plague of environmental problems that began a period of staggering ecological decline.

California Coast out of Big Sur (photo: Erik Olsen)

But the tide turned in the early 20th century, in large part due to the efforts of a determined, pioneering woman who took a stand against the sardine industry and began an effort of restoration that helped make Monterey Bay one of the most celebrated shorelines in the world.

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This transformational figure was Julia Platt, whose contributions were instrumental in the conservation efforts that led to the revival of Monterey’s natural and economic landscape. As mayor of Pacific Grove and a pioneer in marine conservation, Platt used her authority and vision to establish protected marine areas and implement regulations that curbed overfishing and habitat destruction. Her efforts laid the groundwork for a broader environmental awareness and action within the community.

Julia Platt began her career not in politics, but in science. She was born on September 14, 1857, in San Francisco, California, and later moved to Burlington, Vermont. She studied at the University of Vermont and then at Harvard University for her graduate studies.

During her academic journey, Julia faced the limitations imposed on women in academia at the time. In the late 1800s in the United States, it was nearly impossible for a woman to pursue a Ph.D. in zoology due to prevailing gender biases. However, the University of Freiburg in Baden, Germany, presented her with an opportunity to break through these barriers. She seized this chance and became one of the first women to earn a zoological Ph.D. there, challenging the norms and paving the way for future generations.

Her academic achievements were significant, and she had already made significant contributions to science, including pioneering research on chick embryo development and identifying a new head segment in shark embryos.

But upon returning to the US, she once again ran up against the glass ceiling of academia. While she worked with some of the top zoologists of the time, she could not find steady work in science. Admitting defeat, but determined to make her mark, she decided on politics, writing to a friend, “Without work, life isn’t worth living. If I cannot obtain the work I wish, then I must take up with the next best.”

Cannery Row in Monterey 2023 – (Photo by Erik Olsen)

Monterey Bay’s legendary biodiversity was under serious threat. In 1854, a whale was as valuable as several pounds of pure gold, and J.P. Davenport harvested them using exploding lances, processing the carcasses in shore-based vats of boiling oil. By the late 19th century, the lucrative abalone industry had attracted Chinese fishermen village to the shores of Pacific Grove over-burdening the population. During the Gold Rush, prospectors consumed fourteen million seabird eggs from the Farallon islands, a practice that decimated seabird populations. From the 1910s to the 1940s, Monterey Bay’s sardine population fueled a burgeoning canning industry, reaching unprecedented scales that caused horrific smells in town and rendered the beach useless for recreation.

Each of these industries ultimately collapsed under the weight of its own exploitation; otters, whales, seabirds, abalone, and sardines were all harvested to the brink of extinction.

In 1899, as the age of 42, she moved to Pacific Grove, the photogenic seaside hamlet next to Monterey where industrial canning and the environmental destruction wrought by it was at its peak. The pollution from canning operations (romanticized in John Steinbeck’s Cannery Row) made the beaches unusable and the smell wafting from Monterey made conditions almost unlivable. Platt decided to redirect her passion for understanding the intricacies of life into preserving it.

Photo by Eadweard Muybridge of egg collectors on South Farallon Island
Courtesy of New York Public Library via Wikicommons

Taking matters into her own hands, she ran for public office. In 1931, at the age of 70, she became the mayor of Pacific Grove. Despite facing challenges as one of the few female mayors of her time, she wielded her position with an iron will and a clear vision for the future. She was an ardent advocate for beach access for all people, and wielded crowbars, hammers and her own strong will against the rich beachfront land owners who sought to fence off their properties. In this regard, she was a pioneer, foreshadowing the California Coastal Act of 1976—one of the most treasured aspects of California’s landmark coastal protection system—which protects the state’s iconic coastlines from unchecked development and preserves their natural beauty and accessibility for future generations.

Platt’s most significant and lasting contribution as mayor was the establishment of one of the first marine protected areas in California. She passionately argued for the designation of a marine refuge along the coastline, driven by her belief in the innate value of conserving marine habitats and their inhabitants. With her guidance, what became the Lovers Point-Julia Platt State Marine Reserve (SMR) and Edward F. Ricketts State Marine Conservation Area (SMCA), became two of four marine protected areas (MPAs) located on the Monterey Peninsula between Monterey and Pacific Grove.

Bixby Bridge near Monterey (Photo: Erik Olsen)

Thanks to Platt’s efforts, the region saw a revival in its marine biodiversity. Her initiatives ensured that the delicate balance of the marine ecosystem was maintained and allowed for species that were on the brink of being decimated due to human activities to thrive once more.

Julia Platt was more than just Pacific Grove’s mayor; she was its guardian. Through her vision and determination, she transformed Monterey into a beacon of marine conservation. Even after her tenure as mayor, Platt’s legacy lived on. Her initiatives paved the way for future conservation efforts, including the establishment of the iconic Monterey Bay Aquarium.

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The Enigmatic Island Fox: A Tale of Survival and Conservation

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In the rugged, isolated beauty of California’s Channel Islands, a small, curious creature scampers through the chapparal, playing a crucial role in the archipelago’s ecosystem. It’s the Island Fox (Urocyon littoralis), a species that encapsulates both the vulnerability and resilience of island ecosystems.

The island fox only lives on six of the eight Channel Islands off the coast of southern California–they are found nowhere else on Earth. Each island population is recognized as a separate endemic or unique subspecies. This divergence is a classic case of allopatric speciation, where geographic isolation leads to the evolution of different species.

The Island Fox, notably smaller than its mainland cousin, the gray fox, stands as a striking example of insular dwarfism – a phenomenon found in the theory of island biogeography where species evolve smaller sizes on islands. It should be noted that island biogeography, which explores the distribution of species and ecosystems in island environments, finds a perfect case study in the Channel Islands. For instance, the discovery of remains of the pygmy mammoth (Mammuthus exilis) on Santa Rosa Island provides a classic example of how isolation and limited resources can lead to significant evolutionary changes.

Skeleton of the Pygmy Mammoth at the Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History

The Island Fox is known for its curiosity and intelligence. It’s primarily nocturnal but is often active during the day, especially when tourists and their food are around. Visitors to the most popular Channel Islands like Anacapa, Santa Rosa, and Santa Cruz may regularly see the foxes scurrying around campsites looking for scraps of food. They readily approach humans, perhaps an unfortunate sign that they have become too habituated to humans. The island fox is an omnivore, with a diet ranging from fruits and insects to small mammals and birds. Its diet shifts with the seasons, reflecting the availability of different food sources on the islands.

Island Foxes typically form monogamous pairs during the breeding season, which runs from January to March. The female gives birth to a litter of two to four pups around 50 days after mating. These pups are weaned and ready to fend for themselves after about 9 months, reaching sexual maturity at 10 months. The average lifespan of an Island Fox in the wild is 4 to 6 years, though they can live longer in captivity.

Island Fox on the Channel Islands (Photo: Erik Olsen)

The story of the Island Fox’s conservation is one of remarkable success but also a stark reminder of the fragility of island ecosystems. In the late 1990s, the Island Fox population faced a catastrophic decline, primarily due to predation by golden eagles and a disease outbreak. By 2004, fewer than 100 foxes remained on some islands, leading to their classification as an endangered species.

Island Fox looking for food scraps. (Photo: Erik Olsen)

A concerted effort by conservationists, including the National Park Service and the Nature Conservancy, initiated a recovery program. This program involved breeding foxes in captivity, vaccinating them against diseases, and relocating golden eagles while reintroducing bald eagles, a natural competitor. Remarkably, by 2016, the Island Fox populations had bounced back sufficiently for them to be removed from the endangered species list, marking one of the fastest recoveries of an endangered species in U.S. history.

The Island Fox’s journey from the brink of extinction to a conservation success story is a testament to the power of dedicated conservation efforts. It also highlights the importance of maintaining ecological balance in sensitive environments like the Channel Islands.

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Through the Looking Glass Head: The Enigmatic World of the Barreleye Fish

The barreleye (*Macropinna microstoma*)
(Courtesy: Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute MBARI)

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Off the coast of Monterey, California, researchers captured rare footage of one of the deep sea’s strangest residents: the Barreleye fish. With a see-through head and upward-facing, tube-shaped eyes, it looks like something dreamt up for a sci-fi film. Officially called Macropinna microstoma, this bizarre little fish is a real reminder of how much mystery still lies beneath the surface of the ocean and how otherworldly life can get down there.

First described in 1939, the fish astonished scientists who were stunned by its unique optical anatomy. The barreleye is found in the Pacific Ocean, with sightings ranging from the coasts of California, particularly around Monterey Canyon, to the mid-Pacific near Hawaii. Most commonly, it resides between 400 to 2,500 feet below the surface, a region known as the mesopelagic or “twilight” zone. At these depths, little light penetrates, making the area a seemingly inhospitable place for most life forms. But the Barreleye fish thrives here, adapting to its surroundings in the most bizarre ways.

Its most distinctive features, and the ones that give it its name, are its transparent head and barrel-shaped eyes that are usually directed upwards. These eyes are extremely sensitive to light, which is a scarce commodity where it lives. Interestingly, the eyes are encased in a dome-shaped, transparent head. This clear cranium allows the fish to capture as much light as possible, increasing its visual field. The upward-facing eyes allow the Barreleye fish to see silhouettes of prey or predators against the faint light filtering down from the surface. It’s like a built-in periscope for scanning the world above, allowing it to spot the bioluminescent glow of jellies or small fish that meander above it.

In 2009, researchers at the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute elucidated a longstanding mystery surrounding the barreleye. For many years, marine biologists were under the impression that these specialized eyes were immobile and only provided the fish with a limited, tunnel-vision perspective, focused solely on the waters above its transparent head. Such a constraint would significantly limit the fish’s situational awareness, making it highly dependent on what occurs directly above it for both prey detection and predator evasion.

However, a groundbreaking paper by researchers Bruce Robison and Kim Reisenbichler overturned this conventional wisdom. Their findings reveal that the eyes of the barreleye fish are not static but can actually rotate within a transparent protective shield that envelops the fish’s head. This adaptation enables the fish not only to look upwards to identify potential prey but also to focus forward, thereby expanding its field of vision and facilitating more effective foraging.

A remotely operated vehicle or ROV named Doc Ricketts (MBARI)

Robison and Reisenbichler conducted their research using footage obtained from the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute’s remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) to investigate the barreleye fish in the deep-sea regions adjacent to Central California. Situated at depths ranging from 600 to 800 meters (approximately 2,000 to 2,600 feet) beneath the ocean’s surface, the ROVs’ cameras typically captured images of these fish in a state of immobility, floating like zeppelins with their eyes radiating an intense green hue due to the illumination provided by the ROV’s powerful lighting system. The remotely captured video data also divulged a hitherto undocumented anatomical feature—namely, that the eyes of the barreleye fish are encased in a transparent, fluid-filled protective shield that encompasses the upper region of the fish’s cranial structure.

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The implications of this discovery extend beyond mere academic curiosity. Understanding the unique visual system of the barreleye fish provides crucial insights into the mechanisms of evolutionary adaptation. It showcases how even seemingly minor anatomical modifications can result in significant survival advantages in the highly competitive and challenging marine environment. Moreover, it challenges our existing perceptions and encourages scientists to revisit and reevaluate other long-standing assumptions in marine biology.

The Barreleye isn’t just a pair of eyes swimming around in the ocean, though. It has a suite of other adaptations to its challenging environment. For instance, it has large, flat fins that let it remain almost motionless in the water, conserving energy in an environment where every calorie counts. Also, it’s got a small mouth. This mouth is adapted to consume tiny organisms, like zooplankton, that are abundant in the deep ocean. So while the Barreleye may not be the apex predator down there, it has carved out its own unique niche.

Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI) in Moss Landing, California

The fish also has what are called “lateral line canals” that are filled with fluid and are sensitive to changes in pressure. This allows the Barreleye to detect movement in the water, effectively giving it a “sixth sense” to sense prey or predators around it. Imagine you’re trying to navigate a pitch-black room—every little bit of extra information helps.

Despite its enigmatic nature, we know relatively little about its breeding habits, lifespan, or social interactions. Part of the reason is the difficulty in studying a creature that lives in such an extreme environment. Researchers have managed to capture only a few specimens, and observations in their natural habitat are relatively scarce.

While the Barreleye fish might look like a figment of a wild imagination, it’s very much a real creature, adeptly adapted to its harsh surroundings. It represents the myriad ways life can evolve to meet the unique challenges of extreme environments. As we continue to explore the depths of our oceans, who knows what other fantastical creatures we might find? That said, the Barreleye fish remains one of the most compelling arguments for the strange and wondrous biodiversity hidden in the ocean’s twilight zone, a testament to the endless creativity of evolution.

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