While the gold rush was an incredible boon for California, hydraulic miningโs environmental tollโeroded hillsides and choked riversโremains a stark reminder of the cost of progress.
โEarth provides enough to satisfy every manโs needs, but not every manโs greed.โ โ Mahatma Gandhi
โGreed is a bottomless pit which exhausts the person in an endless effort to satisfy the need without ever reaching satisfaction.โ โ Erich Fromm
It was the tail end of the 19th century, a time of gunslingers and gold-diggers, of pioneers venturing forth into the vast expanse of the American West. The year was 1853, and the place was California. From the bustling seaports of San Francisco to the rugged mining towns dotting the Sierra Nevada foothills, the Golden State was witnessing an unprecedented phenomenon. This was the era of the California Gold Rush, a frenzy of ambition, adventure, and avarice that transformed the state and the nation.
The Gold Rush began in 1848 when gold nuggets were discovered at Sutter’s Mill in Coloma, near Sacramento. Soon after, miners from around the world rushed to California, lured by the promise of riches. But as the easily accessible placer deposits in river beds were quickly exhausted, the miners were forced to develop new, more efficient methods of extraction to mine the deeper and harder-to-reach gold seams. Thus, hydraulic mining – a form of mining that utilized high-pressure water jets to wash away soil and rock, revealing the precious metal underneath – was born.
Hydraulic mining in California is inextricably linked with two significant figures: Edward E. Matteson, an entrepreneurial miner, and Anthony Chabot, a young businessman turned water systems innovator. Matteson is credited as the originator of hydraulic mining in 1853, having invented the process out of necessity while trying to extract gold from the gravels of Nevada County, in a site later known as “Blue Tent.”
Matteson’s invention involved directing a powerful stream of water from a makeshift canvas hose onto a hillside, effectively washing away the dirt and gravel to expose the gold underneath. This crude but effective method marked a turning point in gold mining, facilitating the extraction of gold from areas previously deemed unprofitable or inaccessible.
University of California
However, it was Anthony Chabot who took Matteson’s idea and turned it into an industrial-scale operation. Chabot, known as the “Water King,” was a successful entrepreneur who had established multiple water systems in California. Intrigued by Matteson’s invention, he developed the hydraulic nozzle, or “monitor,” in 1855. With this high-pressure water cannon, miners could erode whole mountainsides in their search for gold, making hydraulic mining the most effective and popular method of gold extraction at that time.
The profits from hydraulic mining were enormous. As a result, the state economy boomed and many jobs were created. From 1860 to 1880, California’s mining operations yielded $170 million. San Francisco had more millionaires than New York or Boston.
The Scourge of the Sierra
From the mid-1850s to the mid-1880s, hydraulic mining reigned supreme in California, especially in the counties of Nevada, Placer, and Yuba, where extensive networks of canals, reservoirs, and sluices were constructed to support the practice. Hydraulic mines became colossal operations, employing hundreds of workers and dislodging millions of tons of earth annually. But this progress came at a tremendous cost to the environment.
California State Library
The enormous water pressure used in hydraulic mining dislodged vast quantities of soil, rock, and debris, collectively referred to as “slickens.” These slickens were often laden with mercury, a neurotoxin used extensively in gold amalgamation processes. Water cannons, such as the one above, were used to wash away earth and mountains to access gold. In the early days of the gold rush, these cannons were small with canvas hoses, but more force was eventually needed. By the 1870s these cannons were anywhere from 13 to 18 feet long and could blast water 500 feet. The rivers of Northern California became choked with these toxic tailings, devastating local ecosystems.
“I am at a loss to illustrate the tremendous force with which the water is projected from the pipes. The miners assert that they can throw a stream four hundred feet into the air. … Those streams directed upon an ordinary wooden building would speedily unroof and demolish it,” wrote a reporter for the San Francisco Daily Alta.
One notable example is the Yuba River. In its heyday, hydraulic mining along the Yuba generated approximately 685 million cubic yards of debris, enough to bury Manhattan under ten feet of waste. Much of this sediment still remains, hindering river navigation and threatening local wildlife to this day. The Feather and American rivers also bear the scars of this destructive practice.
The Aftermath and Lingering Effects
By the 1870s, the catastrophic consequences of hydraulic mining were impossible to ignore. Downstream communities, most notably Marysville and Sacramento, suffered frequent and devastating floods exacerbated by mining debris. Agricultural lands were rendered useless by layers of sterile slickens, and fish populations in rivers dwindled alarmingly. The long-term health impacts of widespread mercury contamination are still being understood today.
The tension between the mining industry and the downstream farming communities ultimately culminated in the landmark case of Woodruff vs. North Bloomfield Gravel Mining Company in 1884. This case, presided over by Judge Lorenzo Sawyer, resulted in the famous “Sawyer Decision,” which effectively banned hydraulic mining due to its destructive environmental impact.
But while the Sawyer Decision marked the end of large-scale hydraulic mining, the scars left on the landscape of Northern California are far from healed. The evidence of this destruction is still visible in the stark, eroded hillsides and vast debris fields of Malakoff Diggins State Historic Park in Nevada County, once the site of California’s largest hydraulic mine.
Wikipedia
Modern research is shedding new light on the enduring impacts of hydraulic mining. A study published in 2022 by the University of California, Davis, found that the mercury used in 19th-century mining operations has had far-reaching effects on the state’s ecosystems. Scientists discovered elevated levels of the neurotoxin in local wildlife, suggesting that the legacy of the Gold Rush continues to impact California’s environment and its inhabitants.
The Sierra Fund has introduced the Resilient Sierra Initiative to address the long-term impacts of mining in the Sierra Nevada. Their research estimates that around 26 million cubic yards of sediment remain trapped in reservoirs, which could be released as the climate changes, potentially increasing the frequency and severity of downstream flooding.
The advent of hydraulic mining during the California Gold Rush was undoubtedly a milestone in mining technology. It enabled the extraction of enormous amounts of gold and facilitated the growth and development of California. However, this innovation came with a heavy price. The ecological damage caused by hydraulic mining has left indelible marks on the landscape and continues to influence the state’s environment and communities.
Throughout history, humanity has often pursued wealth at the expense of the natural world. While some impacts are minor and fade over time, far too often, we cross a clear line without pausing to reflect on the damage weโre inflicting. Hydraulic mining in California serves as a powerful reminder: that line exists.
The Mojave Desert, a harsh yet strikingly beautiful landscape that extends across four western U.S. states, is home to an equally fascinating and resilient creature: the desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii). This fascinating reptile has evolved to survive in one of the world’s most inhospitable environments, but today, it faces numerous threats that are jeopardizing its existence.
The desert tortoise is a tortoise species in the family Testudinidae native to the Mojave and Sonoran deserts. They are specially adapted to withstand the extreme conditions of their desert habitat. Desert tortoises can tolerate water, salt, and energy imbalances on a daily basis, which increases their lifespans. On average, adult desert tortoises measure between 10 to 14 inches in shell length and weigh from 8 to 15 pounds. They have a high-domed shell, typically brownish in color, which serves as protection from predators. Their strong, stocky limbs are adapted for digging, an essential behavior for both foraging and creating burrows for shelter.
One of the desert tortoise’s most fascinating adaptations is its ability to store water. They have a large urinary bladder that can store over 40% of the tortoise’s body weight in water, urea, uric acid, and nitrogenous wastes. During the hot, dry summer months, this stored water can be reabsorbed back into the tortoise’s system, effectively allowing them to survive up to a year without access to fresh water.
a close-up of a desert tortoise
Desert tortoises are a testament to survival, with their lineage dating back 15 to 20 million years. They are primarily herbivorous, with a diet consisting of a variety of desert grasses, herbs, and wildflowers, along with the occasional consumption of insects and new growth of cacti.
Tortoises spend much of their lives in burrows, which provide refuge from extreme heat, cold, and predators. They are most active during the cooler hours of the day, and their activity pattern shifts with the changing seasons. Mating typically occurs in the spring and fall, with females laying a clutch of up to 15 eggs, though the survival rate of these hatchlings is low due to predation and harsh environmental conditions.
In 2011, on the basis of DNA, geographic, and behavioral differences between desert tortoises east and west of the Colorado River, it was decided that two species of desert tortoises exist: Agassiz’s desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) and Morafka’s desert tortoise (Gopherus morafkai). The new species name is in honor of the late Professor David Joseph Morafka of California State University, Dominguez Hills.
Desert tortoises spend 95% of their lives in their burrow. Seeing them on the landscape is a rare treat.
Estimates suggest that the population of desert tortoises has plummeted by as much as 90% since the mid-20th century. This decline is due to a variety of factors, including habitat loss from urban development and agriculture, road mortality, predation by dogs and other introduced species, and disease. In particular, upper respiratory tract disease (URTD), caused by the bacterium Mycoplasma agassizii, has been responsible for significant mortality.
Recognizing the threats faced by the desert tortoise, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service listed the species as threatened under the Endangered Species Act in 1990. This has led to numerous conservation efforts aimed at preserving the desert tortoise and its habitat.
Habitat conservation is a key focus, with several Desert Wildlife Management Areas established to protect crucial tortoise habitats. Efforts are also being made to reduce the impact of roads and highways on tortoise populations, such as the construction of underpasses and fencing along known tortoise crossing areas.
Education and public engagement are also critical components of conservation efforts. Initiatives are underway to educate the public about the desert tortoise and the importance of not removing them from their natural environment, a practice that can lead to population decline and the spread of disease.
Over the past few decades, desert tortoise populations have declined significantly, with estimates suggesting a staggering 90% reduction in some areas of the Mojave Desert. This decline has led to the desert tortoise being listed as “threatened” under the U.S. Endangered Species Act.
Desert tortoise facts Lifespan: 30-50 years, but some can live to be over 80 years old Weight: 8-15 pounds (3.5-7 kilograms) Length: 9-15 inches (23-38 centimeters) Range: Only found in the Mojave Desert in California, Nevada, Arizona, and Utah Conservation status: Listed as threatened under the Endangered Species Act
Nature Conservancy
Numerous factors contribute to this decline, including habitat loss due to urbanization, off-road vehicle use, and livestock grazing. Additionally, the introduction of non-native predators, such as the common raven, has led to increased predation on juvenile tortoises.
Conservation organizations, government agencies, and local communities have come together to implement various strategies aimed at protecting and preserving the desert tortoise. These efforts include habitat restoration, fencing off sensitive areas, and developing educational programs to raise awareness about the species.
One such initiative is the “Adopt-a-Tortoise” program, which allows individuals and organizations to symbolically adopt a tortoise, with the proceeds going towards conservation efforts. Another important initiative is the “Head Start” program, which raises hatchlings in captivity until they reach a size less vulnerable to predators before releasing them into the wild.
Ask anyone what the California state rock is, and I doubt whether many people would answer correctly. Is it granite, the magnificent slabby stone that creates the sheer face of Half Dome and El Capitan in Yosemite? Is it obsidian, the glinty black stone so favored by some Native American tribes that they would walk hundreds of miles to collect it and bring home to make tools and weapons?
Serpentine is more than just a pretty rockโit tells a fascinating geological story. Found in many parts of California, particularly in the Coast Ranges and the Sierra Nevada foothills, serpentine is a direct link to the deep, dynamic forces that shape the planet. Because it originates from the mantle, serpentine represents a rare glimpse into Earthโs interior, a reminder that what lies beneath us is always in motion. Beyond its aesthetic appeal, serpentine plays an important role in the environment. The soils that develop from serpentine rock are famously inhospitable to many plants due to their high levels of magnesium and low levels of essential nutrients like calcium. Yet, these tough conditions have led to the evolution of specialized plantsโsome of which are found nowhere else on Earth. Californiaโs serpentine landscapes, with their sparse but highly adapted plant life, are home to unique ecological communities that have fascinated scientists for decades.
A piece of polished serpentine reveals its beauty. (gemstones.com)
Serpentine is formed through the metamorphic process, where pre-existing rocks are transformed into new types under high temperatures, pressures, and chemical processes. Serpentine is primarily composed of hydrous magnesium silicate minerals, such as antigorite, chrysotile, and lizardite (yes, lizardite). Its distinct, vibrant green color and serpent-like appearance make it easily recognizable and intriguing to rock enthusiasts and casual observers alike. It is also widely collected and used as jewelry.
Serpentine is predominantly found in the coastal ranges of California, particularly in the Klamath Mountains and the Sierra Nevada foothills. It is also present in smaller quantities throughout the state. The prevalence of Serpentine in California is a result of the state’s complex geological history, which includes the subduction of oceanic plates beneath the continental North American Plate. This tectonic activity created ideal conditions for the formation of Serpentine. The recognition and study of serpentine in California contributed to the understanding of modern plate tectonic theory.
While not considered a precious gemstone, Serpentine holds significant value due to its unique aesthetic and limited distribution. It is often used as an ornamental stone for jewelry, sculptures, and architectural elements. In addition, Serpentine is historically known for its use in carving, particularly by Native American tribes in California. Serpentine’s low hardness and smooth texture make it ideal for intricate carvings and designs. In recent years, Serpentine has gained popularity among collectors and as a decorative addition to gardens and landscaping.
Serpentine was designated as California’s state rock in 1965, thanks to the efforts of state Assemblyman John Knox. This choice was influenced by the rock’s unique beauty, the significant role it played in California’s geological history, and its importance in the state’s mining industry during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Asbestos, a fibrous mineral found in some forms of Serpentine, was once highly sought after for its heat-resistant properties. However, due to its association with health risks (asbestos is a known carcinogen that has long been associated with lung cancer), the use of asbestos has significantly declined, and current appreciation of Serpentine is largely focused on its aesthetic qualities.
Serpentinite outcrop on the coastal bluffs of the Presidio (National Park Service)
However, the state almost dropped serpentine from its state rock designation due to the high relative quantity of asbestos that serpentine contains. Asbestos occurs naturally in many minerals and in many places. And in fact some serpentine rocks do host chrysotile, a form of asbestos. But geologists say chrysotile is less harmful than some other forms of asbestos and would be a danger โ like scores of other rocks โ only if a person were to breathe its dust repeatedly.
Fascinatingly, serpentine landscapes host a rare and diverse range of plant species adapted to its high magnesium and low calcium environment, often thriving in soils toxic to other vegetation. This peculiar combination of geology and ecology makes California’s serpentine areas not just a subject of geological interest, but also a haven for biological research, offering insights into how life adapts to extreme conditions.
One well-studied group of organisms are plants that display serpentine endemism, meaning they are specially adapted to survive in these harsh soils. A key adaptation in plants involves tolerating high levels of toxic metals and nutrient deficiencies, which can drive speciation and lead to unique ecological communities. Studies on species like Arabidopsis arenosa have shown that genetic variation plays a crucial role in these adaptations, with gene flow and mutations contributing to their survival strategies in serpentine soilsโ.
Serpentine rock (Wikipedia)
Native Americans in California found a variety of practical and cultural uses for serpentine, a mineral abundant in the state and prized for its unique properties. It was particularly valued for its distinctive greenish color, soft texture, and ability to be easily shaped and polished. These qualities made it a favored material for crafting tools, ornaments, and ceremonial objects. Tribes used serpentine to create beads, pendants, and pipes, all of which could be intricately carved and polished to a smooth finish.
In addition to its practical uses, serpentine held significant spiritual and healing value for some Native American groups. The rock’s cool, smooth surface and striking color were believed to possess special properties, and it was often used in rituals or as a symbol of protection and healing. The association with spiritual energy likely contributed to its use in ceremonies or as amulets meant to bring good fortune or ward off harm.
Serpentine stones available for purchase on Ebay (Ebay)
Serpentine also played a role in trade among tribes. Crafted serpentine objects, such as polished ornaments and ceremonial items, were valuable trade goods. These items could be exchanged for other resources, reflecting the mineral’s cultural and economic importance. The widespread availability of serpentine in California’s unique geological landscape made it an accessible yet valuable material for Native American communities, shaping both their daily lives and spiritual practices.
Serpentine is not just a beautiful rock; it is a symbol of California’s rich geological and cultural heritage. By understanding the origins and significance of Serpentine, we can appreciate the complex processes that have shaped our planet and the remarkable diversity of its natural resources. Furthermore, the presence of Serpentine in California is an excellent example of the interconnectedness of geology, ecology, and human history, as the unique habitats it creates support rare plant species and have inspired the artistic endeavors of numerous cultures throughout time.
The drive from Los Angeles north along Highway 395 towards Mammoth Lakes is one of the great road trips in all of California. The drive offers breathtaking views of the Sierra Nevada mountain range, the (much older) White Mountains, the vibrantly picturesque Owens Valley, and the Mojave Desert (which, let’s face it, is kinda boring, especially if you’ve done the drive as many times as I have). The highway winds its way through a diverse range of geological and historical features, making it an ideal destination for road trippers, history buffs, and outdoor enthusiasts alike.
One of the highway’s more magnificent sights is observable when making a left turn up Whitney Portal Road in Lone Pine. Just a few miles up, you will find the magnificent Alabama Hills, a range of hills located in the Owens Valley near the main entrance to Mount Whitney. The hills are known for their unique geological formations, including massive rounded boulders and natural arches, and their rich history and cultural significance.
Scene from Iron Man with Robert Downey Jr. The Alabama Hills stood in for Afghanistan.
The hills are world famous not just for their scenic beauty and appeal to photographers. They have also appeared in more than 700 movie and television productions, including some of the most famous and iconic Westerns ever made. The first film made there was the silent 1920 western โThe Round Up,โ starring Roscoe โFattyโ Arbuckle.
More recently, several major films made use of the Alabama Hills as exotic backdrops. In addition to Iron Man (2008), where Tony Stark crash-lands after escaping captivity, and Gladiator (2000), where the rugged landscape serves as part of the journey for Maximus, the Alabama Hills has also appeared in:
The Lone Ranger (2013) โ The dramatic landscape contributes to the filmโs adventurous, untamed feel.
Django Unchained (2012) โ Here, the rocky outcrops stand in for the American West, giving a distinctive backdrop to Quentin Tarantinoโs Western.
Tremors (1990) โ The Hillsโ remote, desolate look is a perfect setting for this cult classic monster movie.
Star Trek V: The Final Frontier (1989) โ Alabama Hills doubles as alien terrain in this installment of the sci-fi series.
Geologically, the Alabama Hills are primarily made up of biotite monzogranite, an intrusive igneous rock, rather than metamorphic rock. This type of granite was formed from magma that cooled slowly beneath the Earth’s surface, allowing large crystals of quartz, feldspar, and biotite to develop. The landscape, featuring spherical, egg-shaped, teardrop forms, and natural arches, was sculpted over millions of years through a combination of chemical weathering and wind erosion.
California barrel cactus or desert barrel cactus Ferocactus cylindraceus at the Alabama Hills (Erik Olsen)
One of the most striking aspects of the Alabama Hills is the sharp contrast they present with the neighboring glacially carved ridges of the Sierra Nevada. There are almost 10,000 feet of vertical difference between Mount Whitneyโs majestic granite peaks and the rolling boulders of the Alabama Hills. The Sierraโs jagged, ice-carved peaks seem to rise abruptly from the gentle, rounded contours of the hills. Geologically, both landforms consist of the same granitic rock, but they have been shaped by very different forces. While glaciers carved the high peaks of the Sierra Nevada, creating sharp ridges and deep valleys, the Alabama Hills experienced a slower, more gradual transformation. Erosion by wind, rain, and temperature changes slowly sculpted the monzogranite, creating the unique and surreal formations we see today.
While the geological history of the Alabama Hills is well known, its biology is equally fascinating. At first glance, the landscape may seem inhospitable to life, but a closer inspection reveals a surprisingly diverse ecosystem adapted to the harsh conditions. In recent years, new studies have shed light on the resilience and adaptation strategies of plants and animals in this region.
The Alabama Hills are home to a variety of plant species, many of which have evolved to survive in the dry, rocky soil. Sagebrush, saltbush, and other desert plants dominate the landscape, while prickly cacti add a distinct desert charm. One particularly intriguing plant is Atriplex hymenelytra, commonly known as desert holly, which has adapted to the high-salinity soil by developing silvery leaves that reflect sunlight, reducing water loss and protecting the plant from extreme temperatures.
Atriplex hymenelytra, Desert holly.
Wildlife, too, has found ways to thrive in this rugged terrain. The Alabama Hills are home to numerous bird species, reptiles, and small mammals. Species like the western fence lizard, desert cottontail, and even mountain lions are part of this surprisingly vibrant ecosystem. Birdwatchers can often spot red-tailed hawks, ravens, and sometimes even golden eagles soaring above the hills, taking advantage of the thermal updrafts created by the warm rock surfaces.
Recent studies have added to our understanding of the Alabama Hillsโ unique environment. One particularly interesting research project conducted by ecologists focuses on the role of cryptobiotic soil crustsโthin layers of lichens, mosses, and bacteria that live on the surface of desert soils. These crusts play a critical role in preventing erosion and retaining moisture in arid environments like the Alabama Hills. The study revealed that these soil crusts are more widespread than previously thought, and their destruction by human activity, such as off-road vehicle use, could have significant ecological consequences.
Alabama Hills vegetation (Erik Olsen)
Cryptobiotic crusts act as a protective cover on desert soils, anchoring loose particles and reducing susceptibility to wind and water erosion. When these crusts are damaged, the soil is left vulnerable to erosion, which can lead to large-scale soil loss. This erosion depletes the land of nutrients, reduces soil fertility, and diminishes its ability to support native vegetation.
Additionally, geologists continue to study the impact of erosion and weathering on the Alabama Hillsโ distinctive rock formations. Advances in remote sensing technology have allowed scientists to map the regionโs geological features in more detail than ever before, providing new insights into how these formations developed and how they are likely to change in the future.
The hills were (controversially) named after the CSS Alabama, a Confederate warship that operated during the American Civil War. The name was given to the hills by a group of Confederate sympathizers who were prospecting in the area in the 1860s. Several groups have launched campaigns to change the name to erase its connection with Southern slavery.
Alabama Hills (Erik Olsen)
In addition to their geological and historical importance, the Alabama Hills are also important for their recreational opportunities. The hills offer a variety of outdoor activities such as hiking, rock climbing, and photography. The range of hills is also a popular spot for stargazers and astro-photographers, due to the relatively low light pollution in the region.
The Alabama Hills are a must-see destination for anyone interested in geology, history, or outdoor activities in California.
Imagine a world lost in deep time. The atmosphere held less oxygen than at any point since the Cambrian explosion, and the land was dominated by iconic dinosaurs like Allosaurus, Brachiosaurus, Archaeopteryx, and Stegosaurus. It was an era poised for a new type of plant life that would come to define the landscapeโcycads. While Jurassic forests are often depicted as dense with ferns, with their coiled fronds and lush foliage, these plants were not the sole stars of the ancient botanical world.
The true giants of the Jurassic flora were the cycads, seed-bearing plants with stout, woody trunks and crowns of stiff, feather-like evergreen leaves. In fact, the Jurassic is often referred to as the “Age of Cycads”. Cycads thrived during this period, approximately 280 to 145 million years ago, as evidenced by abundant fossils. These resilient plants, which once dominated prehistoric landscapes, have remarkably endured the passage of time, remaining largely unchanged (although this is now disputed) and offering a living glimpse into a world ruled by dinosaurs.
One of the most remarkable features of cycads is the toughness of their leaves. Touch them with your fingers. They have a much greater stiffness than most other plants. Cycad leaves are thick, leathery, and often waxy to the touch, with a heavy cuticle, a protective outer layer that makes them remarkably durable. Unlike the soft, broad leaves of many modern plants, cycad fronds are built to withstand intense sunlight, conserve water in dry environments, and deter herbivores. The stiff, sometimes spiny edges of the leaves would have made them a difficult meal, offering a critical evolutionary advantage during a time when giant plant-eating dinosaurs roamed the Earth.
Cycad leaves are quite hard and resistant to insects. Evidence shows that dinosaurs ate cycad leaves regularly. (Photo: Erik Olsen)
Despite their formidable defenses, evidence shows that dinosaurs did in fact eat cycads. Fossilized dinosaur dung, known as coprolites, has been found containing fragments of cycad tissues and pollen. Some herbivorous dinosaurs like Stegosaurus and Ankylosaurus are believed to have browsed on cycads, along with other tough plants of the Mesozoic landscape. These animals likely evolved strong jaws and specialized teeth capable of grinding down fibrous, sturdy plant material. In turn, the resilience of cycad leaves helped the plants survive repeated grazing and harsh environmental stresses, allowing them to persist across millions of years into the present day. FYI: Flowering plants, or angiosperms, only came into being during the late reign of the dinosaurs, during the Cretaceous Period (145โ66 million years ago).
Recent fossil discoveries are also reshaping how scientists view cycads. In 2023, researchers uncovered an 80-million-year-old fossilized cycad cone in Silverado Canyon, California, revealing that ancient cycads were far more diverse than their modern descendants. Previously thought to be “living fossils” that had remained largely unchanged since the dinosaur era, cycads now appear to have undergone significant evolutionary changes during the Cretaceous period. The find, assigned to a new genus called Skyttegaardia, highlights how much more dynamic and complex cycad history may be than once believed.
Cycads are cool to look at and examine closely, and it turns out that one of the best places in the United States to see actual living cycads in Descanso Gardens in La Canada Flintridge. But how’d they get there?
In 2014, La Canada Flintridge residents Katia and Frederick Elsea called the city’s Descanso Gardens with an odd proposal: would the famous horticultural center take their collection of over 180 rare cycads, a fern-like plant from the days of the dinosaurs?
The garden said yes, and now those plants are part of an effort to recreate a prehistoric landscape. Sixty-six species were transplanted from the Elsea collection to the garden’s Ancient Forest. Cycads form the heart of the forest, but there are also Tree ferns, with feathery fronds, and Ginkgo biloba, known for its distinctive fan-shaped leaves. This area, dedicated to showcasing some of the worldโs oldest and most primitive plant species, highlights the remarkable resilience and beauty of plants that have survived for millions of years.
Cycads are a type of gymnosperm. Gymnosperms are a group of seed-producing plants that includes cycads, conifers, ginkgoes, and gnetophytes. Unlike angiosperms (flowering plants), gymnosperms do not produce flowers or fruits; instead, their seeds are exposed or “naked,” typically held in cones or on the surface of scales. They also have a unique structure, with a large crown of stiff, fern-like leaves arising from a stout trunk. They may look like palms or ferns, but they are actually their own distinct group of plants, with over 300 species in the world.
In contrast, flowering plants have been far more evolutionary successful. Angiosperms dominate most of the planetโs ecosystems, with an estimated 300,000 species, vastly outnumbering the gymnosperms. Their ability to form flowers and fruits has allowed them to diversify into nearly every terrestrial habitat on Earth.
Cycad cone (Dioon edule) at Descanso Gardens. Built for an ancient world: Cycad cones are among the largest and oldest seed structures on Earth, evolving long before the first flower bloomed. Their rugged design helped cycads thrive alongside dinosaurs โ and survive into the modern day. (Erik Olsen)
The cycads at Descanso Gardens come from all over the globe, including Africa, Australia, and the Americas. They are part of the International Palm Society’s Cycad Collection, one of the largest and most diverse collections of cycads in the world. The collection at Descanso Gardens features over 200 cycad specimens, including rare and endangered species.
One of the fascinating plants showcased in the garden is the Sago Palm (not actually a palm), Cycas revoluta, a dioecious species, meaning it has separate male and female plants. Male Sago Palms produce multiple cones at their center, releasing pollen that insects carry to the female plants. The female plants develop a single, large cone in the center, which contains seeds. When the pollen fertilizes these seeds, a new plant can grow, continuing the cycle of this ancient species.
Another fitting addition to the Ancient Forest is the monkey puzzle tree, Araucaria araucana. This small, spiky tree is entirely covered with sharp, scale-like leaves that resemble thick, dense pine needles but are much tougher. Known as one of the earliest living conifers, the monkey puzzle tree stands as a living relic from the time when these ancient trees dominated prehistoric landscapes.
Cycads are fascinating not just for their ancient history, but also for their unique biology. Unlike most plants, which have a single apical meristem (a region of cell division at the growing tip), cycads have multiple meristems, which allows them to produce new leaves even if the growing tip is damaged. They also have a symbiotic relationship with cyanobacteria, which live in their roots and fix nitrogen from the air, allowing the plant to grow in nutrient-poor soils.
Despite their ancient origins, cycads are facing modern-day threats. Many species are endangered due to habitat loss and over-collection for the horticultural trade. The cycad collection at Descanso Gardens is not just a beautiful display, but also an important conservation effort to preserve these ancient plants for future generations.
Cycad at Descanso Gardens (Erik Olsen)
At Descanso Gardens, the cycads have been planted according to the geographic region where they originate: Africa, Asia, Madagascar, Australia and Mexico. Some of the plants no longer exist in the wild.
“For a really long time, this was plant life on Earth,” the former director, David R. Brown told the Los Angeles Times. “This helps remind me that, for as self-absorbed as we are often, we’re but a part of a story that has been going on for a very, very long time.”
If you’d like to learn more about Descanso Gardens, it’s collections and how it came into being check out this episode of Lost LA. And if you’re interested in seeing the cycad collection at Descanso Gardens for yourself, try visiting during the late afternoon, when the golden hour light heightens the beauty and mystery of these cool plants.
We also have the world’s tallest and biggest trees.
Californiaโs giant sequoias and redwoods are natureโs skyscrapers. Redwoods exist in a few narrow pockets in Northern and Central California and into Southern Oregon. Sequoias live exclusively in small groves in central and Northern California with the largest grouping of them found in Sequoia National Park. These two tree species are wonders of the biological world. They are also some of the most magnificent things to behold on the planet.
I have personally climbed the Stagg tree for a New York Times story years ago (see photo below, that’s me). The Stagg is the fifth-largest sequoia in the world, and I will forever remember the experience…even though I chickened out a bit and didn’t make it to the top.
The author climbs the Stagg tree, the fifth-largest tree in the world. (Erik Olsen)
We are lucky to still have our big trees, what’s left of them, anyway. Just a century and a half ago, old-growth redwoods and sequoias were remarkably plentiful. People marveled at them, with some early settlers in California spinning unbelievable yarns of trees that rise from the earth “like a great tower“. They also saw them as a bounteous resource, ripe for plunder (mankind, sigh).
By 1900, nearly all of California’s tall trees had been purchased by private landowners who saw in the trees not beauty, but dollar signs. By 1950, an estimated 95% of Californiaโs original old-growth coast redwood forests had been logged, particularly along the coast from Big Sur to the Oregon border. For giant sequoias, about one-third of the original groves had been cut down, largely in the late 19th and early 20th centuries before protections were put in place.
Between 1892โ1918, theย Sanger Lumber Companyย logged the Converse Basin Grove, one of the largest stands of sequoia in the world, using ruinous clearcutting practices. They cut down 8,000 giant sequoias, some of them over 2000 years old, in a decade-long event that has been described as โthe greatest orgy of destructive lumbering in the history of the world.โ Only 60-100 large specimens in the grove survived. We wrote about that awful event here.
Today, only a small fraction of the old-growth coast redwood forest remains. The largest surviving stands of ancient coast redwoods are found in Humboldt Redwoods State Park, Redwood National and State Parks and Big Basin Redwoods State Park. It’s a wonder and a blessing that there are some left. And even then, they face an uncertain future thanks to climate change.
The remarkable size and height of these incredible organisms are largely due to California’s unique geography, though genetics likely play a significant role as well. Before diving into those factors, letโs take a moment to appreciate just how extraordinary these trees truly are.
Professional tree climber Rip Thompkins at the top of the Stagg tree, a giant sequoia. (Photo: Erik Olsen)
Sequoias and redwoods are closely related. Both belong to the cypress family (Cupressaceae). The primary difference between sequoias and redwoods is their habitat. Redwoods live near the moist, foggy coast, while sequoias thrive in higher-elevation subalpine zones of the Sierra Nevada. Redwoods are the tallest trees in the world. Sequoias are the biggest, if measured by circumference and volume. Redwoods can grow over 350 feet (107 m). The tallest tree in the world that we know of is called the Hyperion, and it tickles the sky at 379.7 feet (115.7 m). But it is quite possible another tree out there is taller than Hyperion. Redwoods are growing taller all the time, and many of the tallest trees we know of are in hard-to-reach areas in Northern California. Hyperion was only discovered about a decade ago, on August 25, 2006, by naturalists Chris Atkins and Michael Taylor. The exact location of Hyperion is a secret to protect the tree from damage.
The giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) is Earthโs most massive living organism. While they do not grow as tall as redwoods – the average size of old-growth sequoias is from 125-275 feet – they can be much larger, with diameters of 20โ26 feet. Applying some basic Euclidean geometry (remember C = ฯd?), that means that the average giant sequoia has a circumference of over 85 feet.
Giant sequoia and man for scale (Photo: Erik Olsen)
Sequoias grow naturally along the western slope of the Sierra Nevada mountain range at an altitude of between 5,000 and 7,000 feet. They tend to grow further inland where the dry mountain air and elevation provide a comfortable environment for their cones to open and release seeds. They consume vast amounts of runoff from Sierra Nevada snowpack, which provides groves with thousands of gallons of water every day. But some say the majestic trees face an uncertain future. Many scientists are deeply concerned about how climate change might affect the grand trees, as drought conditions potentially deprive them of water to survive.
The General Sherman tree in Sequoia National Park. (Photo: Erik Olsen)
The world’s largest sequoia, thus the world’s largest tree, is General Sherman, in Sequoia National Park. General Sherman is 274.9 feet high and has a diameter at its base of 36 feet, giving it a circumference of 113 feet. Scientists estimate that General Sherman weighs some 642 tons, about as much as 107 elephants. The tree is thought to be 2,300 to 2,700 years old, making it one of the oldest living things on the planet. (To learn more about the oldest thing in the world, also in California, see our recent feature on Bristlecone pines.) Interesting fact: in 1978, a branch broke off General Sherman that was 150 feet long and nearly seven feet thick. Alone, it would have been one of the tallest trees east of the Mississippi.
Many sequoias exist on private land. Just last month, one of the largest remaining private stands of Sequoias in the world – the Alder Creek Grove of giant sequoias – was bought by the Save the Redwoods League conservation group for nearly $16 million. The money came from 8,500 contributions from individual donors around the world. The property includes both the Stagg Tree mentioned above and the Waterfall Tree, another gargantuan specimen. The grove is considered “the Crown Jewel” of remaining giant Sequoia forests.
Redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens), also known as coast redwoods, generally live about 500 to 700 years, although some have been documented at more than 2,000 years old. While wood from sequoias was found to be too brittle for most kinds of construction, the redwoods were a godsend for settlers and developers who desperately needed raw material to build homes and city buildings, to lay railroads, and erect bridge trestles. The construction and subsequent reconstruction of San Francisco following the 1906 earthquake heavily relied on redwood timber, prized for its strength, resilience, and natural resistance to decay, making it a foundational resource for the cityโs growth and recovery after the earthquake.
The timber companies who profited from redwoods only began to cut them down in earnest a bit over a century ago. But cut them down they did, with vigor and little regard for the preservation of such an amazing organism. After World War II, California experienced an unprecedented building boom, and the demand for redwood (and Douglas fir) soared. Coastal sawmills more than tripled between 1945 and 1948. By the end of the 1950s, only about 10 percent of the original two-million-acre redwood range remained untouched.
The author standing by burned sequoias. (Photo: Erik Olsen)
OK, you got this far. I hope. So how did these trees get so big and tall? Most scientists agree it has to do with climate. Sequoias benefit from California’s often prodigious snowpack, mentioned above, which seeps into the ground, constantly providing water to the roots of the trees. In addition to the snowpack, the thick (up to 2 feet), fire-resistant bark of sequoias helps protect them from wildfires. This forest ecology helps as well, since the fires themselves clear competing vegetation, allowing more sunlight and nutrients to reach the trees. The temperate climate of California, with its relatively mild winters and summer fog, also helps sustain these giants by moderating temperatures and reducing water loss, creating an environment where sequoias can thrive for centuries.
Conversely, Redwoods get much of their water from the air, when dense fog rolls in from the coast and is held firm by the redwoods themselves and the steep terrain. Because of the unique interplay of ocean currents and climate in California, the amount of fog that is available to trees is highly unusual. The trees’ leaves actually consume water in fog, particularly in their uppermost shoots. According to scientists who study the trees using elaborate climbing mechanisms to reach the treetops, in summer, coast redwoods can get more than half of their moisture from fog. (In fact, fog plays a central role in sustaining several of Californiaโs coastal ecosystems.) The reason is that fog is surprisingly dense with water. One study from scientists Daniel Fernandez of California State University, Monterey Bay, showed that a one-square-meter fog collector could harvest some 39 liters, or nearly 10 gallons, of water from fog in a single day.
Giant sequoia – family for scale (Erik Olsen)
Another possible explanation for the coast redwoodโs remarkable size lies in its extraordinary genome. According to research from the Redwood Genome Project, the coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) is hexaploid, meaning it carries six copies of each chromosome in every cell, an extremely rare feature in trees. In contrast, humans and most other plants and animals are diploid, carrying only two sets of chromosomes.
The coast redwood genome is indeed massive, estimated at around 27 billion base pairs, which is approximately nine times larger than the human genome (which has about 3 billion base pairs). While not exactly ten times larger, the general comparison holds and highlights the treeโs genetic complexity.
By comparing the coast redwoodโs genome with those of other conifers, researchers have found hundreds of unique gene families, many of which are associated with stress tolerance, wound repair, fungal resistance, toxin metabolism, and the biosynthesis of flavonoids, all compounds that help mitigate cellular stress.
This rich genetic toolkit may contribute to the treeโs legendary resilience, longevity, and ability to grow to extraordinary heights, though the full relationship between genome size and physical traits in redwoods is still being studied.
Yet another factor may be the trees remarkable longevity. They are survivors. The Sierra Nevadas have long experienced dramatic swings in climate, and this age may be yet another of those swings that the trees will simply endure. Or maybe not. For most of the time that redwoods and sequoias have existed, they have done a remarkable job fighting off fires, swings in climate, as well as disease and bug infestations. Because their bark and heartwood are rich in compounds called polyphenols, bugs and decay-causing fungi don’t like them. Many trees, not just redwoods and sequoias, have genes that help them resist the typical aging processes that limit the lifespan of animals. For instance, trees can compartmentalize and isolate damaged or diseased wood, preventing the problem from spreading to the rest of the tree.
Giant sequoias in California. (Photo: Erik Olsen)
As the air heats up due to global warming, there is a rising threat to the trees’ survival. Warm air pulls moisture from leaves, and the trees often close their pores, or stomata, to maintain their water supply. When the pores close, that prevents carbon dioxide from nourishing the tree, slowing or even halting photosynthesis. The climate in areas where the trees grow hasn’t yet experienced the kind of temperatures that might kill them, but we are really just at the beginning of this current era of global warming, and some scientists warn hotter temperatures could doom many trees.
That said, other studies that show the increased carbon that causes warming could actually be good for the trees. According to an ongoing study from Redwoods Climate Change Initiative, California’s coast redwood trees are now growing faster than ever. As most people know, trees consume carbon dioxide from the air, so, the scientists argue, more carbon means more growth. However, scientists caution that climate change is not a net benefit. Increased drought, fire risk, and ecosystem stress may ultimately outweigh these temporary growth gains.
We will see. While coast redwoods have shown resilience during recent droughts, with no widespread mortality observed, giant sequoias have not fared as well. In the past decade, drought, bark beetles, and intense wildfires have killed nearly 20% of all mature giant sequoias, a sharp and alarming decline for such a long-lived species.
Redwood grove in Northern California (Photo: Erik Olsen)
It all comes down to some kind of balance. Trees may benefit from more carbon, but if it gets too hot, trees could start to perish. That’s a bit of a conundrum, to say the least.
The prospect of losing these magnificent trees to climate change is a double whammy. Not only would a mass die-off of trees be terrible for tourism and those who simply love and study them, but trees are some of the best bulwarks we have on the planet to fight climate change. Redwoods are among the fastest-growing trees on earth; they can grow three to ten feet per year. In fact, a redwood achieves most of its vertical growth within the first 100 years of its life. Among trees that do the best job taking carbon out of the atmosphere, you could hardly do better than redwoods and sequoias.
The Archangel Ancient Tree Archive, an organization out of Copemish, Michigan, has been “cloning” California’s big trees for nearly a decade. They take snippets of the trees from the top canopy and replant them, essentially creating genetically identical copies of the original tree. It’s more like propagating than cloning, but that’s what they call it. The group’s founder, David Milarch, believes fervently that planting large trees is our best bet in stopping climate change. This is the video story I produced about Milarch back in 2013. It’s worth a watch. He’s an interesting character with a lot of passion.
Preserving and protecting what’s left of these amazing organisms should be a priority in California. These trees are not only part of the state’s rich natural legacy, but they offer ample opportunities for tourism and strengthening the economies of the regions where they grow. It’s hard to visit Redwood National and State Parks or Sequoia & Kings Canyon National Parks and to come away with anything but awe at these magnificent organisms. California is special, and we are blessed to have these trees and the places where they grow in our state.
When we think about Apollo and attempt to localize it here on earth in our minds, we typically think about Apollo Mission Control Center in Houston, Texas. Who can forget Neil Armstrongโs famous words: “Houston, Tranquillity Base here. The Eagle has landed.”
But thereโs more to Californiaโs role in Apollo. In La Canada Flintridge, home of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, one of the most important experiments of the whole mission was developed, and it changed the way we look at the moon and its relationship to our planet.
The Lunar Laser Ranging Experiment consisted of a reflector that was positioned on the moon by Armstrong and Aldrin. It was aimed back at the earth, where lasers fired pulses of laser light that were then reflected and detected by special receivers here on the ground.
The reflectors are too small to be seen from Earth, and the task of actually hitting them was a major technical challenge. Even though a laser is a highly concentrated light, by the time the light reaches the moon, the beam is roughly four miles wide. Scientists back then likened the effort to using a rifle to hit a moving dime two miles away.
Let’s talk about the weather, water and climate change in California. Lots of stories this week on these subjects. First of all, a big report came out in journal Earthโs Future this week, and it says that the stateโs wildfire issues are clearly being driven by climate change. It points to the fact that in the past decade, we have experienced half of the stateโs 10 largest wildfires and seven of its 10 most destructive fires. That includes last year’s Camp Fire, the stateโs deadliest wildfire ever. The study found that the area burned in California’s forest fires – the annual burned area – has increased in size by 500 percent. The cause, says the paper: more heat, more dryness, more fuel. All of these things can be tied to climate change, it says.
And then there’s this, which seems a bit contradictory, but here you go: another study from Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego says that we will also be seeing more of those atmospheric-river storms that deluged the state earlier this year. It looked at 16 global climate models focusing on western North America and found that most of the heavy precipitation that the West will get in the future will come from these so-called atmospheric rivers. That is to say, when we have rain, it will be more intense and more deluge-like. So, start building those arks. The point here seems to be that when it’s wet, it’s going to be really wet. And when it’s dry, it’s going to be really dry. Like the American electorate today, everything is going to the extremes.
Ok, moving on. While this may seem contradictory, our big winter storms dumped so much snow that safety officials in the state are warning people about using the rivers that carry all that snow melt out of the mountains. The rivers are raging. This may be great for kayakers and rafters, it can also be dangerous. At least six people have died on the Kern River already this year. On a similar note, Mammoth Mountain, which is almost always closed by now, will be open until for skiing until July 28. Earlier the mountain had said August, but they changed their minds. That said, there is still 60 feet of snow at the summit. Wha?
Marine reserves are working even better than we thought
Rockfish
California has one of the largest, most robust marine protected area systems in the world, covering about 18 percent of the stateโs waters. The system is vast, stretching down the entire coast from Crescent City to San Diego. It has been phased in over the years, but most of the areas are now firmly in place with severe restrictions on fishing and any kind of “taking”, like rocks shells, etc. And while many studies have been done to show that MPAs work to bring back animals life, there has long been a question whether they lead to a so-called “spillover effect”, that is, whether animals breed and multiply and then move out of the areas, enriching other zones.
Well, a new study shows that there is a spill-over effect. Scientists from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrationโs (NOAA) Southwest Fisheries Science Center used genetics to track kelp rockfish, a species in California that tends to remain in the same location their entire adult lives. The key word here is “adult,” because the kids move around. By following counting fish and analyzing DNA, the scientists showed that juvenile kelp rockfish actually do move out of marine reserves sometimes as far as about 20 kilometers away. This suggests that there is, in fact, a spillover effect taking place in the reserves. This is very good news for ecologists, but also for fishermen, who could see more fish showing up in non-restricted areas.
The cracks left behind by the recent Southern California earthquakes have become tourist attractions. Of course they have. (SF Gate)
There are ten Apollo “moon trees” in California (NatGeo)
This very cool video shows what happens when scientists from MBARI shine blue light on the deep-sea squid Histioteuthis. Its green eye glows with fluorescence like something otherworldly. Scientists are not sure why, but think it may have something to do with absorbing light. (YouTube)
The Mount Wilson Observatory recently opened the doors to its 100-inch telescope to the public for stargazing. Get the kids and go! (Mt. Wilson)
A marine biologist who studies porpoises mating says one of the best places to observe them is…the Golden Gate Bridge. (MEL Magazine)
The U.S. Department of Transportation has selected San Diego as the location for a major drone testing program that will include high-altitude mapping of the U.S.-Mexico border, package deliveries, and first responder operations. (SDNews)
Speaking of cool video, NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory released this very impressively produced piece about their new climbing robot LEMUR, designed to work in extreme terrain. It can scale rock walls. Wow, JPL, keep it up. (YouTube)
A coal plant in Utah has been L.A.โs single-largest power source for three decades. The plant is closing in 2025 and the state will move to natural gas. But that has some clean energy folks upset. (LA Times)
Valley fever, a dangerous fungal disease, may be striking California farmworkers. Rates of new cases rose 10 percent between 2017 and 2018, according to the California Department of Public Health. https://www.nbcnews.com/news/amp/ncna1017806
We loved this video about the recovery of the Channel Island fox by SkunkBear. (YouTube)
Lake Tahoe, the second deepest in the U.S., is 7/10 of an inch away from it’s legally allowed capacity. It’s risen 8 feet in 3 years, all thanks to this year’s big winter storms. (NNBN)
Elon Musk’s Neuralink made a big announcement about its brain-computer interface system, that will dramatically increase the number of electrodes that can connect to a brain. But one of the most interesting goals is that it may allow paraplegic patients to use their thoughts to type at a rate of 40 words per minute.
California produces the vast majority of the world’s sunflower seeds, but farmers in one county are asking visitors to stop taking selfies in sunflower fields because they are causing damage. (Guardian)
A potential crisis for stem cell research: since 2004, scientists have benefited from a $3 billion state research agency called the California Institute for Regenerative Medicine. But now the agency says it is no longer funding new projects. (ScienceMag)
In a new 440,000-square-foot fulfillment center in Los Angeles, robots are working furiously to get stuff to you faster. (LA Times)
Remember that great story about the guy who killed the endangered fish in Death Valley? Well hereโs a video of that same underwater pond called Devils Hole during the earthquake. (NPS)
That’s it! Have a great week, and please send your friends an invitation to sign up for the California Science Weekly newsletter.
