A Deep Dive into Monterey Canyon, California’s Great Abyss

Monterey Canyon stretches nearly 95 miles out to sea, plunging over 11,800 feet into the depths—one of the largest submarine canyons on the Pacific Coast, hidden beneath the waves. (Courtesy: Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute MBARI)

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Standing at Moss Landing, a quaint coastal town known for its fishing heritage, bustling harbor, and the iconic twin smokestacks of its power plant, you might never guess that a massive geological feature lies hidden beneath the waves. From this unassuming spot on the California coast, Monterey Canyon stretches into the depths, a colossal submarine landscape that rivals the grandeur of the Grand Canyon itself.

Monterey Canyon, often called the Grand Canyon of the Pacific, is one of the largest and most fascinating submarine canyons in the world. Stretching over 95 miles from the coast of Monterey, California, and plunging to depths exceeding 3,600 meters (11,800 feet), this underwater marvel rivals its terrestrial counterpart in size and grandeur. Beneath the surface of Monterey Bay, the canyon is a hotspot of geological, biological, and scientific exploration, offering a window into Earth’s dynamic processes and the mysterious ecosystems of the deep sea.

Monterey Canyon owes its impressive scale and structure to the patient yet powerful forces of geological time. Formed over millions of years, Monterey Canyon has been shaped by a range of geological processes. One prevailing theory is that the canyon began as a river channel carved by the ancestral Salinas River, which carried sediments from the ancient Sierra Nevada to the ocean. As sea levels fluctuated during ice ages, the river extended further offshore, deepening the canyon through erosion. Another hypothesis points to tectonic activity along the Pacific Plate as a significant factor, creating fault lines and uplifting areas around the canyon while subsidence allowed sediment to accumulate and flow into the deep. These forces, combined with powerful turbidity currents—underwater landslides of sediment-laden water—worked in tandem to sculpt the dramatic contours we see today. Together, one or several of these processes forged one of Earth’s most dramatic underwater landscapes.

While the geology is awe-inspiring, the biology of Monterey Canyon makes it a living laboratory for scientists. The canyon is teeming with life, from surface waters to its darkest depths. Near the top, kelp forests and sandy seafloors support a wide variety of fish, crabs, and sea otters, while the midwater region, known as the “twilight zone,” is home to bioluminescent organisms like lanternfish and vampire squid that generate light for survival. Lanternfish, for example, employ bioluminescence to attract prey and confuse predators, while vampire squid use light-producing organs to startle threats or escape unnoticed into the depths. In the canyon’s deepest reaches, strange and hardy creatures thrive in extreme conditions, including the ghostly-looking Pacific hagfish, the bizarre gulper eel, and communities of tube worms sustained by chemical energy from cold seeps.

The barreleye fish, captured in stunning video footage by MBARI, is one of the canyon’s most fascinating inhabitants. This deep-sea fish is known for its’ domed transparent head, which allows it to rotate its upward-facing eyes to track prey and avoid predators in the dimly lit depths. Its unique adaptations highlight the remarkable ingenuity of life in the deep ocean. Countless deep-sea creatures possess astonishing adaptations and behaviors that continue to amaze scientists and inspire awe. Only in recent decades have we gained the technology to explore the depths and begin to uncover their mysteries.

The canyon’s rich biodiversity thrives on upwelling currents that draw cold, nutrient-rich water to the surface, triggering plankton blooms that sustain a complex food web. This process is vital in California waters, where it supports an astonishing array of marine life, from deep-sea creatures to surface dwellers like humpback whales, sea lions, and albatrosses. As a result, Monterey Bay remains a crucial habitat teeming with life at all levels of the ocean.

What sets Monterey Canyon apart is the sheer accessibility of this underwater frontier for scientific exploration. The canyon’s proximity to the shore makes it a prime research site for organizations like the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute (MBARI). Using remotely operated vehicles (ROVs) and advanced oceanographic tools, MBARI scientists have conducted groundbreaking studies on the canyon’s geology, hydrology, and biology. Their research has shed light on phenomena like deep-sea carbon cycling, the behavior of deepwater species, and the ecological impacts of climate change.

This animation, the most detailed ever created of Monterey Canyon, combines ship-based multibeam data at a resolution of 25 meters (82 feet) with high-precision autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV) mapping data at just one meter (three feet), revealing the canyon’s intricate underwater topography like never before.

MBARI’s founder, the late David Packard, envisioned the institute as a hub for pushing the boundaries of marine science and engineering, and it has lived up to this mission. Researchers like Bruce Robison have pioneered the use of ROVs to study elusive deep-sea animals, capturing stunning footage of creatures like the vampire squid and the elusive giant siphonophore, a colonial organism that can stretch over 100 feet, making it one of the longest animals on Earth.

Bruce Robison, deep-sea explorer and senior scientist at MBARI, has spent decades uncovering the mysteries of the ocean’s twilight zone, revealing the hidden lives of deep-sea creatures in Monterey Canyon. (Photo: Erik Olsen)

Among the younger generations of pioneering researchers at MBARI, Kakani Katija stands out for her groundbreaking contributions to marine science. Katija has spearheaded the development of FathomNet, an open-source image database that leverages artificial intelligence to identify and count marine animals in deep-sea video footage, revolutionizing how researchers analyze vast datasets. Her work has also explored the role of marine organism movements in ocean mixing, revealing their importance for nutrient distribution and global ocean circulation. These advancements not only deepen our understanding of the deep sea but also showcase how cutting-edge technology can transform our approach to studying life in the deep ocean.

Two leading scientists at MBARI, Steve Haddock and Kyra Schlining, have made groundbreaking discoveries in Monterey Canyon, expanding our understanding of deep-sea ecosystems. Haddock, a marine biologist specializing in bioluminescence, has revealed how deep-sea organisms like jellyfish and siphonophores use light for communication, camouflage, and predation. His research has uncovered new species and illuminated the role of bioluminescence in the deep ocean. Schlining, an expert in deep-sea video analysis, has played a key role in identifying and cataloging previously unknown marine life captured by MBARI’s remotely operated vehicles (ROVs). Her work has helped map the canyon’s biodiversity and track environmental changes over time, shedding light on the delicate balance of life in this hidden world.

Monterey Canyon continues to inspire curiosity and collaboration. Its unique conditions make it a natural laboratory for testing cutting-edge technologies, from autonomous underwater vehicles to sensors for tracking ocean chemistry. The canyon also plays a vital role in education and conservation efforts, with institutions like the Monterey Bay Aquarium engaging visitors and raising awareness about the importance of protecting our oceans.

As we venture deeper into Monterey Canyon—an astonishing world hidden just off our coast—we find ourselves with more questions than answers. How far can life push its limits? How do geology and biology shape each other in the depths? And how are human activities altering this fragile underwater landscape? Yet with every dive and every discovery, we get a little closer to unraveling the mysteries of one of Earth’s last great frontiers: the ocean.

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The Mountain Pass Mine in California May Be the U.S. Rare Earths Game Changer

A California Company Called MP Materials Hopes to Revitalize Domestic Rare Earth Production to Reduce Dependence on China

MP Materials Rare Earths Mine in Mountain Pass, California (Photo: Erik Olsen)

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Rare earth metals are now essential to the global economy, powering everything from smartphones and electric vehicles to wind turbines and defense systems. As China continues to dominate the market—producing more than 70% of the world’s supply—the urgency to find reliable alternatives has grown. The United States is locked in a high-stakes race to secure new sources of rare earth elements, along with other critical minerals like lithium and nickel, which are key to the clean energy transition. At the center of this effort is a storied mine in California that not only helped launch the rare earth industry decades ago but now stands as America’s most promising hope for rebuilding a domestic supply chain.

Mining shaped California’s growth, from the 1849 Gold Rush to key industries like mercury, silver, copper, tungsten, and boron. While some have declined, others, like the Rio Tinto U.S. Borax Mine in Boron, California, remain major global suppliers, while rare earth element extraction continues to be an important industry.

MP Materials’ Mountain Pass rare earths mine in California is a remarkable example of industrial resurgence and the strategic importance of critical metals in the modern era. Located in Mountain Pass in the remote Californian desert near the Nevada border (it’s easily viewable from Interstate 15), this mine, initially developed in the mid-20th century, has seen dramatic shifts in fortune, technology, and geopolitics, reflecting the complex role rare earth elements (REEs) play in global industries.

The rock at Mountain Pass contains an average of 7 to 8 percent rare earth elements—a remarkably high concentration by industry standards. This richness is a key factor in the mine’s potential. However, extracting these valuable elements from the surrounding material remains a challenge.

Discovered in 1949 while prospectors searched for uranium, the Mountain Pass deposit instead revealed bastnaesite, an ore rich in rare earth elements like neodymium, europium, and dysprosium. These elements are indispensable to modern technologies, powering innovations across consumer electronics, environmental solutions, and advanced military systems.

A computer-controlled arm deposits the raw crushed ore into a mound at the MP Materials mine and ore processing
site in Mountain Pass, CA. (Courtesy: MP Materials)

Smartphones, for instance, are packed with rare earth elements that enable their functionality. Europium and gadolinium enhance the brightness and color of their screens. Lanthanum and praseodymium contribute to the efficiency of their circuits, while terbium and dysprosium enable the compact, high-performance speakers. Beyond smartphones, rare earth elements are essential to electric vehicles and renewable energy technologies, particularly in the production of permanent magnets. Thanks to their distinctive atomic structure, rare earth elements can produce magnetic fields far stronger than those generated by other magnetizable materials like iron. This exceptional capability arises from their partially filled 4f electron shell, which is shielded by outer electrons. This configuration not only gives them unique magnetic properties but also results in complex electronic arrangements and a tendency for unpaired electrons with similar spins. These characteristics make rare earth elements indispensable for creating the most advanced and powerful commercial magnets, as well as for applications in cutting-edge electronics.

Permanent magnets are among the most significant uses of rare earths, as they convert motion into electricity and vice versa. In the 1980s, scientists discovered that adding small amounts of rare earth metals like neodymium and dysprosium to iron and boron created incredibly powerful magnets. These magnets are ubiquitous in modern technology: tiny ones make your phone vibrate, medium-sized ones power the wheels of electric cars, and massive ones in wind turbines transform the motion of air into electricity. A single wind turbine can require up to 500 pounds of rare earth metals, highlighting their critical role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

MP Materials Processing Facility in Mountain Pass, California (Courtesy: MP Materials)

Additionally, rare earths play a significant role in environmental applications. Cerium is used in catalytic converters to reduce vehicle emissions, while lanthanum enhances the efficiency of water purification systems. Rare earth-based phosphors are employed in energy-efficient lighting, such as LED bulbs, which are central to reducing global energy consumption.

The importance of these elements underpins the strategic value of deposits like Mountain Pass, making the extraction and refinement of rare earths a critical aspect of both technological progress and national security. In the military domain, rare earths are integral to cutting-edge systems. They are used in the production of advanced lasers, radar systems, night vision equipment, missile guidance systems, and jet engines. According the the Department of Defense, for example, the F-35 Lightning II aircraft requires more than 900 pounds of rare earth elements. Alloys containing rare earth elements also strengthen armored vehicles, while lanthanum aids in camera lenses and night vision optics, giving military forces a strategic advantage.

Bastnaesite concentrate. Bastnaesite is a mineral that plays a crucial role in the production of rare earth metals.
(Courtesy of MP Materials)

To fully appreciate the significance of rare earth elements and their crucial role in the United State’s economic future, it’s essential to explore the history of Mountain Pass, one of the most important rare earth mines in the world. This storied site not only played a pivotal role in meeting the surging demand for these elements but also serves as a case study in the challenges of balancing industrial ambition with environmental responsibility.

The Molybdenum Corporation of America, later renamed Molycorp, initially capitalized on the booming demand for europium in color televisions during the 1960s. In 1952, the company acquired the Mountain Pass site, recognizing its rich deposits of rare earth minerals. As the first major player in rare earths in the United States, it began operations at Mountain Pass, establishing a foothold in the burgeoning industry. Over the ensuing decades, Mountain Pass became the world’s premier source of rare earths, serving a growing market for advanced materials.

By the 1990s, however, the mine faced significant challenges. Environmental damage caused by leaks of heavy metals and radioactive wastewater led to regulatory scrutiny and costly fines, culminating in the mine’s closure. During its dormancy, global rare earth production shifted overwhelmingly to China, which gained near-monopoly control over the market. By the time Molycorp attempted to revive the site in the early 2000s, it struggled against operational inefficiencies, low rare earth prices, and fierce Chinese competition. Molycorp eventually declared bankruptcy, leaving the mine idle once again.

MP Materials Mine Facility (Photo: Erik Olsen)

In 2017, MP Materials, led by investors including Michael Rosenthal and Jim Litinsky, acquired the shuttered Mountain Pass mine after recognizing its untapped potential. Initially, they anticipated an established mining or strategic buyer would emerge. Faced with the risk of losing the mine’s permit and seeing it permanently closed through reclamation, they made the bold decision to operate it themselves. To restart operations, MP Materials partnered with Shenghe Resources, a Chinese state-backed company that provided critical early funding and became the company’s primary customer. Through this arrangement, MP shipped raw rare earth concentrate to China for processing, laying the foundation for a business model that was heavily reliant on the Chinese supply chain.

Over the next several years, Mountain Pass far exceeded expectations. By 2022, it was producing 42,000 metric tons of rare earth oxides—three times the best output achieved under its previous owner, Molycorp—and accounted for about 15% of global production. In 2024, the mine hit a U.S. production record with over 45,000 metric tons of REO in concentrate. But even as the mine’s output surged, MP Materials’ ties to China remained central to its operations. Shenghe not only purchased the bulk of that concentrate but also maintained an 8% ownership stake. In 2024, roughly 80% of MP’s revenue came from this relationship. That changed in 2025, when China imposed steep tariffs and new export restrictions. MP responded by halting all shipments to China, shifting instead to processing much of its output domestically and selling to U.S.-aligned markets like Japan and South Korea. It has since invested nearly $1 billion to build out a full domestic supply chain and launched a joint venture with Saudi Arabia’s Ma’aden, marking a decisive pivot away from reliance on China.

The processing of rare earth elements, particularly for high-value applications like magnets, involves a complex, multi-step value chain. It begins with extraction, where ores containing rare earths are mined, followed by beneficiation, a process that concentrates the ore to increase its rare earth content. Next, separation and refining isolate individual rare earth oxides through solvent extraction or other chemical methods. These refined oxides then undergo metallization, where they are reduced into their metallic form, making them suitable for further industrial use. The metals are then alloyed with other elements to enhance their properties, and finally, the material is shaped into high-performance magnets essential for applications in electric vehicles, wind turbines, and advanced electronics. Each of these steps presents significant technical, economic, and environmental challenges, making rare earth processing one of the most intricate and strategically important supply chains in modern technology.

Despite MP Materials’ success and efforts to ramp up facets of processing at its Mountain Pass mine in California, a critical portion of the rare earth refining process—metallization, alloying, and magnet manufacturing—remains dependent on other countries, including China and Japan. These procedures are both intricate and environmentally taxing, and California’s stringent regulatory framework, designed to prioritize environmental protections, has made domestic processing particularly challenging. Across the rare earths industry, this dependence on Chinese facilities exposes a significant vulnerability in the rare earth supply chain, leaving the United States and other countries reliant on foreign infrastructure to produce critical materials essential for technologies such as electric vehicles and advanced military systems.

However, to address the dependency on foreign processing, MP Materials is investing heavily in building a fully domestic rare earth supply chain. At its Mountain Pass mine in California, the company is enhancing its processing and separation capabilities to refine rare earth elements on-site. Meanwhile, at its new Independence facility in Fort Worth, Texas, MP Materials has begun producing neodymium-praseodymium (NdPr) metal and trialing sintered neodymium-iron-boron (NdFeB) magnets. This facility marks the first domestic production of these critical materials in decades, with the capability to produce 1,000 metric tons of magnets annually, amounting to the production of roughly half a million EV motors.

“This is our ultimate goal,” says Matt Sloustcher, EVP of Corporate Affairs for MP Materials. “To handle the entire separation and refining process on-site—but that ramp-up takes time.”

Individual slings of PrNd Oxide, the primary product produced at MP Materials. (Courtesy: MP Materials)

MP Materials asserts that the new U.S.-based rare earth supply chain it is developing will be a “zero discharge” facility, recycling all water used on-site and disposing of dry waste in lined landfills. That will make it a far more environmentally sustainable than its counterparts in Asia, where rare earth mining and processing have led to severe pollution and ecological damage. The company says it is making progress. MP Materials’ Sloustcher pointed California Curated to a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) study published in the American Chemical Society which “found that NdFeB magnets produced from Mountain Pass ore have about one-third the environmental footprint of those from Bayan Obo, China’s largest rare earth mine.”

“With record-setting upstream and midstream production at Mountain Pass and both metal and magnet production underway at Independence , we have reached a significant turning point for MP and U.S. competitiveness in a vital sector,” said James Litinsky, Founder, Chairman, and CEO of MP Materials in a company release.

Interior view of the Water Treatment Plant at the MP Materials mine and ore processing site in
Mountain Pass, CA. (Courtesy: MP Materials)

MP Materials has also partnered with General Motors to produce rare earth magnets for electric vehicles, signaling its commitment to integrating domestic production into key industries. The push for domestic EV production is not just about economic security but also about environmental sustainability, as reducing the carbon footprint of mining, processing, and transportation aligns with the broader goal of clean energy independence.

The resurgence of the Mountain Pass mine aligns with a broader initiative by the U.S. government to secure domestic supplies of critical minerals. Recognizing Mountain Pass as a strategic asset, the Department of Defense awarded MP Materials a $35 million contract in February 2022 to design and build a facility for processing heavy rare earth elements at the mine’s California site Additionally, the Department of Energy has been actively supporting projects to strengthen the domestic supply chain for critical minerals, including rare earth elements, through various funding initiatives.

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Mountain Pass’s operations, however, highlight the challenges inherent in mining rare earths. The extraction process involves significant environmental risks, particularly in managing wastewater and tailings ponds. MP Materials claims to prioritize sustainable practices, yet its long-term ability to minimize environmental impact while scaling production remains under scrutiny. The mine’s bastnaesite ore, with rare earth concentrations of 7–8%, is among the richest globally, making it economically competitive. Still, as mentioned above, processing bastnaesite to isolate pure rare earth elements involves complex chemical treatments, underscoring why global production remains concentrated in a few countries.

Overhead view of the Crusher at the MP Materials mine and ore processing site in Mountain Pass, CA. (Courtesy: MP Materials)

Today, Mountain Pass is not only a critical supplier but also a symbol of U.S. efforts to reduce dependency on Chinese rare earth exports as well as other minerals such as lithium and copper vital to a transition to clean energy technology. As demand for REEs surges with advancements in green energy and technology, the increasing mine’s output supports the production of permanent magnets used in electric motors, wind turbines, and countless other applications. This resurgence in domestic rare earth production offers hope for a revitalized U.S.-based supply chain, reducing dependence on foreign sources and ensuring a more stable, sustainable future for critical mineral access.

However, significant obstacles remain, including the environmental challenges of mining, the high costs of refining and processing, and the need to develop advanced manufacturing infrastructure. Overcoming these barriers will require coordinated efforts from industry, government, and researchers to make domestic production both economically viable and environmentally responsible, ensuring a truly climate-friendly future. With the global race for critical minerals intensifying, MP Materials’ success demonstrates the potential—and challenges—of revitalizing domestic mining infrastructure in an era of heightened resource competition.

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How a Lancaster, California Company is Giving Old EV Batteries a Second Life on the Grid

Solar array in the Mojave desert (Erik Olsen)

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As the world pivots toward renewable energy sources, the challenge of energy storage looms ever larger. The sun doesn’t always shine, and the wind doesn’t always blow — but the demand for electricity never stops. Currently, natural gas and coal are the primary ways we generate electricity. These are dirty, pollution-causing industries that will need to be phased out if we are to tackle the problems associated with climate change. Many different solutions to this problem are currently being investigated across the country and the world.

For example, the Gemini Solar + Battery Storage Project, located about 30 miles northeast of Las Vegas, is one of the largest solar battery facilities in the United States, launched in 2023. Spanning approximately 5,000 acres, it combines a 690-megawatt solar photovoltaic array with a 380-megawatt battery storage system, capable of powering about 50,000 homes and providing 10% of Nevada’s peak energy demand. By storing solar energy in massive batteries, the facility ensures a stable and reliable power supply even after the sun sets, addressing the intermittency challenges of renewable energy.

The Gemini Solar + Storage (“Gemini”) project in Clark County, Nevada is now fully operational. It uses lithium ion batteries from China to store solar power (Gemini Solar + Storage)

However, these facilities face significant challenges due to the inherent explosive potential of lithium batteries. The Moss Landing battery facility fire serves as a stark reminder of the challenges associated with large-scale energy storage. Housing one of the world’s largest lithium-ion battery systems, the facility experienced multiple fire incidents, raising concerns about the safety of these technologies. These fires were particularly alarming due to the potential for thermal runaway, a phenomenon where a single battery cell’s failure triggers a chain reaction in neighboring cells, leading to uncontrollable fires and explosions. While no injuries were reported, the incidents caused significant operational disruptions and prompted widespread scrutiny of fire safety protocols in energy storage systems. Investigations have pointed to the need for more robust cooling mechanisms, advanced monitoring systems, and comprehensive emergency response strategies to prevent similar events in the future.

Aside from the potential fire dangers of large battery facilities, building large-scale solar battery projects like Gemini is costly, often exceeding hundreds of millions of dollars, due to the expense of new lithium-ion batteries. A more sustainable and economical solution could involve repurposing old batteries, such as those from retired electric vehicles. These batteries, while unsuitable for cars, still retain enough capacity for energy storage, reducing costs, resource use, and electronic waste.

That’s where B2U Storage Solutions, a California-based company founded by Freeman Hall and Mike Stern, offers an innovative answer to this critical problem. By harnessing the power of old electric vehicle (EV) batteries to store renewable energy, B2U is giving these aging batteries a productive second life and helping enhance the viability of green energy grids. The effort could pave the way for not only improving solar storage but also reusing old batteries that might otherwise end up in landfills or pose environmental hazards.

According to Vincent Beiser in his wonderful new book Power Metal: The Race for the Resources That Will Shape the Future, “by 2030, used electric car batteries could store as much as two hundred gigawatt-hours of power per year. That’s enough to power almost two million Nissan Leafs.”

Used car batteries configured to store solar power (B2U Storage Solutions)

Founded in 2019, B2U emerged as a spin-off from Solar Electric Solutions (SES), a solar energy development company with a strong track record of success, having developed 100 megawatts across 11 projects in California since 2008. Freeman Hall, a seasoned renewable energy strategist, and Mike Stern, a veteran in solar project development, combined their expertise to address a growing challenge: how to create affordable and sustainable energy storage.

Leveraging their knowledge, B2U developed their patented EV Pack Storage (EPS) technology. This technology allows for the integration of second-life EV batteries without the need for costly repurposing, making large-scale energy storage more economically feasible. Their vision took shape in Lancaster, California, where they established the SEPV Sierra facility in 2020.

At the Lancaster site, B2U uses over 1,300 repurposed EV batteries to form a large-scale battery energy storage system (BESS). When solar farms generate more electricity than the grid can immediately use, the excess power is stored in these second-life batteries. Later, when the sun sets or demand peaks, that stored energy is released back into the grid. This process reduces waste and helps stabilize renewable energy supply.

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B2U is not alone. The second-life market for EV batteries is projected to grow to $7 billion by 2033, according to a March report by market research firm IDTechEx. While most EVs rely on lithium-ion batteries, these typically lose viability for vehicle use after about eight to ten years. However, depending on their remaining capacity and “state of health”—a measure of cell aging—they can be repurposed for less demanding applications, such as stationary energy storage, the report notes.

B2U Storage Solutions has launched its second hybrid battery storage facility near New Cuyama in Santa Barbara County, California. This innovative project uses approximately 600 repurposed electric vehicle batteries, primarily from Honda Clarity models, to provide 12 megawatt-hours of storage capacity. Charged by a 1.5-megawatt solar array and supplemental grid power, the facility supplies electricity and grid services to the California energy market. By employing patented technology, the system integrates second-life EV batteries in their original casings, reducing costs and enhancing sustainability. Building on the success of its first facility in Lancaster, this project demonstrates a scalable approach to energy storage while minimizing electronic waste and supporting renewable energy adoption.

B2U claims its technology enables batteries to be repurposed in a nearly “plug-and-play” manner, eliminating the need for disassembly. The system is compatible with units from multiple manufacturers, including Honda, Nissan, Tesla, GM, and Ford, allowing them to be seamlessly integrated into a single storage system.

Renewable energy is essential to combating climate change, but its intermittent nature poses challenges for maintaining a reliable power grid. Without effective storage, surplus renewable power generated during peak periods is wasted, and fossil fuels must often be burned to cover shortfalls. By using second-life EV batteries, B2U provides a sustainable, cost-effective solution to this problem.

B2U Storage Solutions has launched its second hybrid battery storage facility near New Cuyama in Santa Barbara County, California.

Freeman Hall and Mike Stern’s innovative approach at B2U addresses the pressing need for affordable energy storage while giving EV batteries a second life. Their Lancaster facility and the one in New Cuyama demonstrate how smart storage solutions can make renewable power more reliable and accessible. By extending the lifecycle of EV batteries and supporting a resilient energy grid, B2U is at the forefront of sustainable energy innovation.

As California works toward ambitious renewable energy goals and the world increasingly embraces electric vehicles, companies like B2U could play a crucial role in shaping a cleaner, more sustainable future.

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Understanding the Impact of Santa Ana Winds in the Eaton Fire

Homes in Altadena destroyed by the Eaton Fire (Erik Olsen)

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The recent fires that swept through sections of Los Angeles will be remembered as some of the most destructive natural disasters in the city’s history—a history already marked by earthquakes, floods, and the potential for tsunamis. Yet, even a week later, confusion persists about what happened. Predictably, the finger-pointing has begun, with political opportunism often overshadowing rational analysis. This is, unfortunately, emblematic of our current climate, where facts are sometimes twisted to suit individual agendas. What we need now is a sound, scientific examination of the factors that led to this catastrophe—not just to better prepare for future disasters, but to deepen our understanding of the natural forces that shape our world.

One fact is indisputable: the fires were unusual in their ferocity and destruction. While studies, debates, and expert analyses following the disaster are inevitable, the immediate aftermath offers one clear conclusion—this fires were driven, in large part, by the extraordinary winds that descended on Los Angeles that night. On January 8th, Santa Ana winds roared through the chaparral-covered canyons of the San Gabriel Mountains like a relentless tidal wave of warm air. I witnessed this firsthand, standing outside on my porch as 100-foot trees bent under the gale forces, their massive branches snapped like twigs and flung into streets, homes, and vehicles. A few of them toppled entirely. Having lived in Los Angeles for most of my life, I can confidently say I had never experienced winds of this intensity.

Altadena Community Church. The church was a progressive Christian and open and affirming church and was the thirteenth church in the United Church of Christ that openly accepted LGBTQ people. (Erik Olsen)

The conditions were ripe for disaster. Southern California had not seen significant rainfall since May, leaving the chaparral bone dry. According to Daniel Swain, a climate scientist at UCLA and the University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources, this year marks either the driest or second-driest start to the rainy season in over a century. Dry chaparral burns quickly, and with the powerful winds driving the flames, the fire transitioned from a wildland blaze to an urban inferno. When the flames reached residential areas, entire neighborhoods of mostly wood-frame homes became fuel for the firestorm. In the lower foothills, it wasn’t just the vegetation burning—it was block after block of homes reduced to ash.

The wind was the true accelerant of this tragedy. Yesterday, I walked through the Hahamongna Watershed Park, formerly known as Oak Grove Park, renamed in the late 20th century to honor the Tongva people. In just 15 minutes, I passed more than a dozen massive oaks—centuries-old trees ripped from the ground, their intricate root systems exposed like nerves. These trees had withstood centuries of Southern California’s extremes—droughts, floods, heat waves—only to be toppled by this extraordinary wind event. Climate change undoubtedly influences fire conditions, but the immediate culprit here was the unrelenting, pulsating winds.

Downed oak tree after the Eaton Fire in Hahamonga watershed park (Erik Olsen)

Meteorologists had accurately predicted the intensity of this event, issuing warnings days in advance. Many residents took those warnings seriously, evacuating their homes before the fire reached its peak destruction. While the loss of 25+ lives is tragic, it is worth noting how many lives were saved by timely evacuations—a stark contrast to the devastating loss of life in the Camp Fire in Paradise a few years ago. Though the terrain and infrastructure of the two locations differ, the success of the evacuations in Los Angeles deserves recognition.

The winds of January 8th and 9th were exceptional, even by the standards of Southern California’s fire-prone history. They tore through canyons, uprooted trees, and transformed a wildfire into an urban disaster. Understanding these winds—their causes, their predictability, and their impacts—is essential not only to prevent future tragedies but to grasp the powerful natural forces that define life in Southern California. As the city rebuilds, let us focus on learning from this disaster, guided by science, reason, and a determination to adapt to a future where such events may become increasingly common.

Southern Californians know the winds by many names: the “devil winds,” the “Santa Anas,” or simply the harbingers of fire season. Dry, relentless, and ferocious, Santa Ana winds have long been a defining feature of autumn and winter in the region. This past season, they roared to life with exceptional vigor, whipping through Altadena and the Pacific Palisades, fanning flames that turned neighborhoods into tinderboxes. As these winds carried ash and terror across Southern California, a question lingered in the smoky air: what made this Santa Ana event so severe, and was climate change somehow to blame?

Home destroyed in Eaton Fire in Altadena (Erik Olsen)

To understand the recent fires, one must first understand the mechanics of the Santa Ana winds. They begin far inland, in the arid Great Basin, a sprawling high-altitude desert region encompassing parts of Nevada, Utah, and eastern California. Here, in the shadow of towering mountain ranges, a high-pressure system often takes hold in the fall and winter. This system is driven by cold, dense air that sinks toward the ground and piles up over the desert. When a contrasting low-pressure system develops offshore over the Pacific Ocean, it creates a steep pressure gradient that propels the cold air westward, toward the coast.

The high-pressure system over the Great Basin in January, which fueled the devastating fires in Los Angeles, was unusual in several ways. While these systems often dominate in the fall and winter, this particular event stood out for its intensity, prolonged duration, and timing. High-pressure systems in the Great Basin drive Santa Ana winds by forcing cold, dense air to sink and flow toward lower-pressure areas along the coast. In this case, the pressure gradient between the Great Basin and the coast was extraordinarily steep, generating winds of unprecedented strength. As the air descended, it warmed through compression, becoming hotter and drier than usual, amplifying fire risks in an already parched landscape.

Winds ravage a McDonalds in Altadena (Instagram)

As this air moves, it descends through mountain passes and canyons, accelerating and compressing as it drops to lower altitudes. This compression heats the air, causing it to become warmer and drier. By the time the winds reach urban areas like Altadena or the Pacific Palisades, they are hot, parched, and moving with hurricane-force gusts. The result is a perfect storm of conditions for wildfire: low humidity, high temperatures, and gale-force winds that can carry embers miles from their source.

In the case of the recent fires, these dynamics played out in particularly dramatic fashion. Winds clocked in at speeds exceeding 70 miles per hour, snapping tree branches and downing power lines—common ignition sources for wildfires.

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The cold air over the Great Basin didn’t appear out of nowhere. Its origins lay in the Arctic, where polar air was funneled southward by a wavering jet stream. The jet stream, a high-altitude ribbon of fast-moving air that encircles the globe, has become increasingly erratic in recent years, a phenomenon many scientists attribute to climate change. The Arctic is warming faster than the rest of the planet, reducing the temperature difference between the poles and the equator. This weakening of the temperature gradient slows the jet stream, allowing it to meander in large, looping patterns. One such loop likely brought Arctic air into the Great Basin, setting the stage for the ferocious winds. While much is known about these patterns, it’s an emerging area of research with compelling evidence but not yet universal consensus.

As these winds swept across Southern California, they encountered vegetation primed for combustion. Years of drought, exacerbated by rising temperatures, had left the region’s chaparral and scrubland desiccated. When embers landed in this brittle fuel, the flames spread with devastating speed, aided by the winds that acted as bellows.

Agave covered in Phos Chek fire retardant (Erik Olsen)

While the direct cause of the fires was likely human—downed power lines or another ignition source—the conditions that turned a spark into an inferno were shaped by the interplay of natural and human-influenced factors. Climate change didn’t create the Santa Ana winds, but it likely amplified their effects. Warmer global temperatures have extended droughts, dried out vegetation, and created longer, more intense fire seasons. Meanwhile, the erratic jet stream may make extreme high-pressure events over the Great Basin more likely, intensifying the winds themselves.

This intersection of natural weather patterns and climate change creates a troubling new normal for Southern California. The Santa Ana winds, once a predictable seasonal nuisance, are now agents of destruction in an era of heightened fire risk. Their devilish power, long mythologized in Southern California lore, is now being reframed as a warning sign of a climate in flux.

As the smoke clears and communities begin to rebuild, the lessons from these fires are stark. Reducing fire risk will require not only better management of power lines and vegetation but also a reckoning with the larger forces at play. The Santa Anas will continue to howl, but their fury need not be a death sentence. To live in harmony with these winds, Californians must confront the deeper currents shaping their world. The question is whether we can act before the next spark ignites the next inferno.

California’s Two-Spot Octopus Combines Extraordinary Intelligence with Masterful Camouflage

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California Two Spot Octopus (Photo: Erik Olsen)

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(This post has been updated with new research on octopus neurology.)

While diving along the California coastline, spotting a California two-spot octopus is a rare and memorable experience. Nestled in rocky crevices or hidden among kelp, these octopuses are easily identified by their distinctive blue “eye-spots,” which are not actual eyes but mimicry patterns used to confuse predators. Such encounters provide a fascinating glimpse into the behavior of this remarkable marine species.

The California two-spot octopus (Octopus bimaculoides), found from Central California to Baja, is a master of adaptation. Its chromatophores—specialized skin cells—allow it to change color and pattern with precision, enabling camouflage, communication, and courtship displays. This ability, paired with its intelligence and problem-solving skills, highlights the octopus’s unique place in the marine ecosystem and makes it a subject of keen scientific interest.

The California two-spot octopus, Octopus bimaculoides, is a marine creature that not only captivates with its intelligence but also serves as a window into the complex tapestry of cephalopod behavior and genomics.

Their behavior is an orchestra of complexity; they are solitary creatures, favoring a reclusive life, with the exception of mating. Research has shown that they have a keen ability to learn and navigate mazes, unscrew jars, and engage in play, indicating a level of intelligence that is quite remarkable for an invertebrate.

Santa Barbara Museum of Natural History Sea Center

The study of octopus intelligence, characterized by their remarkable problem-solving abilities and behavioral sophistication, has profound implications for our understanding of intelligence as a biological phenomenon. Octopuses, having diverged from the lineage that would lead to humans around 600 million years ago, share a common ancestor with us that was likely a simple, multicellular organism, a primitive flatworm. This vast evolutionary gulf highlights the fact that octopus intelligence developed along a trajectory entirely distinct from our own. Their decentralized nervous systems, capable of independently operating limbs and complex reflex actions, challenge the mammalian-centric view of brain-body coordination and cognitive processing, suggesting that intelligent behavior can arise from a variety of neural architectures.

Unlike humans and other vertebrates, where neural control is centralized in the brain, over two-thirds of this octopus’s neurons are located in its arms. This decentralized system allows each arm to function with remarkable independence, capable of exploring, tasting, and manipulating its environment without direct input from the brain. Recent studies reveal that octopus arm neurons are arranged in segmented clusters, enabling precise control of movement and the coordination of its powerful suckers. This unique adaptation not only enhances their hunting efficiency but also underscores the intricate evolutionary design of these intelligent marine creatures.

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If you haven’t seen it yet, I highly recommend YouTuber Mark Rober’s recent video on octopus intelligence. His pet octopus Sashimi is a California Two Spot Octopus.

The ability of octopuses to adapt their skin color and texture in real-time, for purposes ranging from camouflage to communication, is a further testament to their cognitive prowess. This capability is controlled not just by their brains, but by the network of nerve cells spread across their body discussed above, showcasing a form of distributed intelligence. It indicates that cognition can be more holistic than previously thought, involving complex interactions between an organism’s nervous system and its environment. These findings prompt a reevaluation of intelligence, proposing that it is not a single trait but rather a spectrum of abilities that can manifest in diverse forms across different species.

Recent discoveries have shown the animal’s remarkable ability to actually see with its skin. A University of California at Santa Barbara study found that the skin of the California two-spot octopus can sense light even without input from the central nervous system. The animal does so by using the same family of light-sensitive proteins called opsins found in its eyes (and ours) — a process not previously described for cephalopods. The researchers’ findings appeared in the Journal of Experimental Biology.

California two-spot octopus hatchling (UCSB)

The independent evolutionary path of octopus intelligence highlights the remarkable plasticity and adaptability of cognitive systems. It implies that intelligence can evolve under a variety of ecological pressures and life histories. In the case of the octopus, their short lifespans and lack of social structures, which are generally seen as drivers of intelligence in vertebrates, have not prevented them from developing complex behaviors and learning capacities. This independence suggests that intelligence is not a linear or singular progression but a trait that can emerge in multiple forms across the tree of life, shaped by the specific challenges and opportunities an organism faces in its niche.

The California Two-Spot Octopus is increasingly recognized as a valuable model organism for scientific research due to its unique biology and evolutionary position. New studies, particularly in the field of genomics using the genome of the California Two Spot octopus, have unveiled the vastness of the octopus’s genetic blueprint. Its sequenced genome provides an unparalleled resource for studying cephalopod-specific innovations, including their advanced nervous systems, remarkable cognitive abilities, and capacity for complex behaviors such as camouflage and problem-solving. As a model organism, the two-spot octopus enables researchers to explore fundamental questions about neural development, learning, and adaptation in animals, offering insights that extend to broader biological and evolutionary contexts. The genome’s wealth of information, including expanded gene families linked to neural function and adaptive traits, makes this octopus an ideal subject for addressing critical questions in genomics, neurobiology, and evolutionary biology.

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Their genome is large and contains a greater number of genes than that of a human, with a massive proliferation of gene families associated with neural development hinting at the biological underpinnings of their brainpower and behavior. These genetic insights could explain not only their sophisticated nervous systems but also their adaptability and the evolution of their unique traits.

For the California science enthusiast, the two-spot octopus represents not just a local marine inhabitant but also a subject of profound scientific intrigue. The more we delve into their world, the more we uncover about the possibilities of life’s evolutionary paths. Their genomic complexity challenges our understanding of intelligence and consciousness, making them not just a marvel of the deep but a mirror reflecting the enigma of life itself.

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How a Tiny Beetle Helped Save California

California’s citrus industry confronted a deadly challenge, leading to a groundbreaking innovation in pest control.

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In the sun-drenched orchards of late 19th-century California, a crisis was unfolding that threatened to decimate the state’s burgeoning citrus industry. The culprit was a small sap-sucking insect native to Australia called the cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi). First identified in New Zealand in 1878, this pest had made its way to California by the early 1880s, wreaking havoc on citrus groves. The pest is believed to have arrived in the United States through the global trade of plants, a common vector for invasive species during the 19th century. As horticulture expanded globally, ornamental plants and crops were frequently shipped between countries without the quarantine measures we have today. Once established in the mild climate of California, the cottony cushion scale found ideal conditions to thrive, spreading rapidly and wreaking havoc on the citrus industry.

The cottony cushion scale infested trees with a vengeance, covering branches and leaves with a white, cotton-like secretion. This not only weakened the trees by extracting vital sap but also led to the growth of sooty mold on the honeydew excreted by the insects, further impairing photosynthesis. Growers employed various methods to combat the infestation, including washing trees with whale oil, applying blistering steam, and even detonating gunpowder in the orchards. Despite these efforts, the pest continued its relentless spread, causing citrus exports to plummet from 2,000 boxcars in 1887 to just 400 the following year. This decline translated to millions of dollars in lost revenue, threatening the livelihoods of countless farmers and jeopardizing the state’s citrus economy, which was valued at over $10 million annually (approx. $627 million in today’s dollars) during this period.

Orange and lemon groves, along with the home of citrus pioneer William Wolfskill, circa 1882. (California Historical Society)

In 1885, the independent growers across Southern California banded together in response to the insect invasion and the broader difficulties facing citrus growers at the time, forming the state’s first fruit cooperative, which would later become Sunkist. Despite their efforts, homemade mixtures of kerosene, acids, and other chemicals failed to halt the relentless spread of Icerya purchasi. The pests, with an endless supply of citrus trees to feed on, continued to multiply unchecked. New laws mandated growers to uproot and burn infected orange trees, but the devastation was widespread. By 1888, real estate values, which had soared by 600 percent since 1877, had plummeted.

Enter Charles Valentine Riley, the Chief Entomologist for the U.S. Department of Agriculture. A visionary in the field of entomology, Riley had previously attempted biological control by introducing predatory mites to combat grape phylloxera in France, albeit with limited success. Undeterred, he proposed a similar strategy for the cottony cushion scale crisis. In 1888, Riley dispatched his trusted colleague, a fellow entomologist named Albert Koebele, to Australia to identify natural enemies of the pest.

The cottony cushion scale infestations were so severe that citrus trees appeared as though they had been coated with artificial snow, resembling Christmas flocking. Fruit production sharply declined, and many trees succumbed to the damage. (UC Riverside)

Interestingly, Valentine resorted to subterfuge to send an entomologist to Australia despite Congress’s objections. Lawmakers had prohibited foreign travel by the Agriculture Department to curb Riley’s frequent European excursions. However, Riley, well-versed in navigating political obstacles, cleverly arranged for an entomologist to join a State Department delegation heading to an international exposition in Melbourne.

Koebele’s expedition proved fruitful. He worked with Australian experts to locate the pest in its rare habitats along with its natural enemies, including a parasitic fly and approximately the Vedalia beetle. The vedalia beetle (Rodolia cardinalis) is a small ladybird with a voracious appetite for the cottony cushion scale. Koebele collected and shipped hundreds of these beetles back to California. Upon their release into infested orchards, the vedalia beetles rapidly established themselves, feasting on the scales and reproducing prolifically. Within months, the cottony cushion scale populations had diminished dramatically, and by 1890, the pest was largely under control across the state. This 1888-89 campaign marked the beginning of biological control in the United States, a strategy involving the introduction of natural predators to manage invasive pests.

In her 1962 classic Silent Spring, Rachel Carson described the Novius beetle’s work in California as “the world’s most famous and successful experiment in biological control.”

Novius ladybug devours an Icerya. (UC Riverside)

This was far from the last time California employed such measures. It became a relatively common practice to introduce new species to control those that posed threats to the state’s economically vital crops, but not always successfully.

In the 1940s, California introduced parasitic wasps such as Trioxys pallidus to control the walnut aphid, a pest threatening the state’s walnut orchards. These tiny wasps laid their eggs inside the aphids, killing them and dramatically reducing infestations, saving the industry millions of dollars. Decades later, in the 1990s, the state faced an invasive glassy-winged sharpshooter, a pest that spread Pierce’s disease in grapevines. (Interesting fact: The glassy-winged sharpshooter drinks huge amounts of water and thus pees frequently, expelling as much as 300 times its own body weight in urine every day.) To combat this, scientists introduced Gonatocerus ashmeadi, a parasitic wasp that targets the pest’s eggs. This biological control effort helped protect California’s wine industry from devastating losses.

The Vedalia beetle (novius cardinalis) also known as the cardinal ladybird (Katja Schulz Wikipedia)

While the introduction of the vedalia beetle was highly effective and hailed as a groundbreaking success, biological control efforts are not without risks, often falling prey to the law of unintended consequences. Although no major ecological disruptions were recorded in the case of the cottony cushion scale, similar projects have shown how introducing foreign species can sometimes lead to unforeseen negative impacts. For example, the cane toad in Australia, introduced to combat beetles in sugarcane fields, became a notorious ecological disaster as it spread uncontrollably, preying on native species and disrupting ecosystems. Similarly, the mongoose introduced to control rats in sugarcane fields in Hawaii also turned predatory toward native birds. These examples highlight the need for meticulous study and monitoring when implementing biological control strategies. Today, regulatory frameworks require rigorous ecological assessments to minimize such risks.

The glassy-winged sharpshooter (Georgia Tech)

In the case of the Vedalia beetle, its precise and targeted predation led to a highly successful outcome in California. Citrus quickly became one of the state’s most dominant and profitable crops, helping to establish California as a leader in agricultural production—a position it continues to hold firmly today.

This groundbreaking use of biological control not only rescued California’s citrus industry but also established a global precedent for environmentally sustainable pest management. The success of the Vedalia beetle’s introduction showcased the power of natural predators in managing agricultural pests, offering an alternative to chemical pesticides. While pesticides remain widely used in California and across the world, this effort underscores the value of understanding ecological relationships, evolutionary biology, and the benefits of international scientific collaboration.

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The story of the Vedalia beetle and the cottony cushion scale highlights human ingenuity and the effectiveness of nature’s own checks and balances. It stands as an early example of integrated pest management, a method that continues to grow and adapt to meet modern agricultural challenges. This successful intervention underscores the importance of sustainable practices in protecting both our food systems and the environment.

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Laurel Sumac, the Resilient Beauty of Southern California’s Chaparral

Laurel sumac in the San Gabriel Mountains (Erik Olsen)

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Here’s another article exploring some of California’s native plants. With a remarkable abundance of flora, California is home to over 6,500 species that play a vital role in shaping its diverse and iconic landscapes.

While hiking through the chaparral-covered hills of Southern California, from the Santa Monica to the San Bernardino and San Gabriel Mountains, you’ll encounter a rich variety of plants, each adapted to thrive in the harsh, dry conditions. Some of them will inevitably be foreign, as California’s mild Mediterranean climate is a perfect incubator for invasive species. But there are many indigenous plants (aka: endemic) that are touchstones of resilience, survivors that thrive here and help make the California chaparral ecosystem incredibly diverse and hearty. Among these is the laurel sumac, a stalwart of the coastal sage scrub, its waxy, aromatic leaves adapted to withstand the sun-baked hillsides and dry seasons that define so much of California’s natural landscape.

Laurel sumac (Malosma laurina) is a large, rounded evergreen shrub or small tree that can grow up to 20 feet tall and wide. When in bloom (late spring through summer), it gives off a strong, aromatic scent that can be very pleasant. The plant is native to southern California and Baja California, and is also found on the southern Channel Islands.

The plant is characterized by lance-shaped leaves with reddish veins and stems, adding a touch of color to the landscape. Laurel sumac has a unique ability to curl its leaves upward when exposed to extreme heat. This reduces the surface area exposed to the sun, minimizing water loss and preventing overheating. This trait has earned the plant the nickname “taco plant,” as its leaves often fold up like a taco shell. The clusters of small white flowers that bloom at the tips of its branches resemble lilac blossoms. After blooming, the small, creamy-white flowers develop into clusters of tiny, reddish-brown, berry-like fruits known as drupes. Each drupe contains a single seed and is covered with a thin, leathery skin.

From a hike in the San Gabriel Mountains. Most of the large clumpy bushes are Laurel sumac (Erik Olsen)

Although named “laurel” for its resemblance to bay laurel, laurel sumac actually belongs to the cashew family (Anacardiaceae). This family includes other well-known plants like poison oak, mango, and pistachio, highlighting the diverse characteristics within this botanical group. Laurel sumac is a vital species in the coastal sage scrub and chaparral ecosystems, offering habitat and food for wildlife. Its berries are particularly enjoyed by songbirds, including warblers. The plant blooms from late spring to early summer, producing clusters of small, white flowers that attract various pollinators, including bees and butterflies.

After flowering, it produces small, reddish-brown fruits that are a food source for birds and other wildlife. Interestingly, the shrub’s ability to thrive in the arid conditions of Southern California, combined with its distinctive red stems and fragrant blooms, make it a key contributor to the region’s natural beauty and biodiversity.

Laurel sumac along a trail in the San Gabriel Mountains (Erik Olsen)

The plant is amazingly drought-tolerant, with deep roots that allow it to access water during dry periods, making it a critical species in fire-prone environments. In fact, its ability to quickly resprout after fire is one reason it’s so prevalent in chaparral communities.

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Laurel sumac is also notable for its role in traditional indigenous practices. Native peoples of the region used various parts of the plant for medicinal purposes, including treating skin conditions and respiratory ailments. Known as “ektii” by the Kumeyaay people, Laurel sumac held a prominent place in their traditional practices. The Kumeyaay are indigenous to the region that spans southern California, including San Diego County, and northern Baja California, Mexico. After childbirth, a tea or wash made from the plant was used for its soothing and medicinal properties, demonstrating its role in maternal care.

Laurel sumac with its fragrant white blossoms.

Beyond its medicinal uses, the sturdy wood of laurel sumac was utilized in construction, reflecting its practical value to the Kumeyaay. In a modern twist, the dried flower clusters of the plant have found a niche in model railroading, where enthusiasts often paint them and use them as miniature trees to create realistic landscapes.

Laurel sumac is just one of the many incredible native plant species that contribute to California’s rich biodiversity. Its abundance in some of the southern mountain ranges makes it a quintessential part of the landscape and an essential topic when exploring native flora. Stay tuned as we continue to highlight more species that make California such a unique and extraordinary place.

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A Model Organism Advancing Research in Genomics and Behavioral Science

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California’s citrus industry confronted a deadly challenge, leading to a groundbreaking innovation in pest control.

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