The Ocean’s Invisible Elevator: How Upwelling Fuels California’s Marine Bounty

The Vital Role of Upwelling in California’s Rich Ocean Life

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Few marine processes have been as impactful on the abundance of sea life off the coast of California as upwelling. It may not be a term you’ve heard before, but the natural oceanic process of upwelling is one of the most important engines driving climate, biological diversity, and the ocean’s food web. It’s time to pay attention.

In simple terms, upwelling happens when deep, cold, nutrient-laden water moves toward the ocean surface, replacing the warm surface water. Along the California coast, it’s fueled by the California Current, which flows southward, and by prevailing northerly winds. The wind pushes surface water offshore, allowing the deeper water to well up and take its place. This isn’t just an abstract idea; it’s been studied extensively.

In California, upwelling occurs year-round off the northern and central coast. It’s strongest in the spring and summer when northwesterly winds are at their most powerful. Upwelling is reduced in the fall and winter when winds are more variable.

Killer whales benefit from upwelling because the nutrient-rich waters fuel a surge in phytoplankton, which triggers an increase in the populations of smaller prey fish and marine mammals that orcas rely on for sustenance. (Photo: NOAA)

Researchers from institutions like the Scripps Institution of Oceanography and Stanford University have used a variety of methods, including satellite observations and computer modeling, to study upwelling. One of the groundbreaking studies was the CalCOFI program (California Cooperative Oceanic Fisheries Investigations), which began in the late 1940s. It was a joint venture between Scripps and state and federal agencies to investigate the collapse of the sardine fishery. Over decades, it has expanded its scope and now provides invaluable long-term datasets that help scientists understand the dynamics of upwelling and its effects on marine populations.

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The key to understanding the phenomenon of upwelling off the California coast begins with the importance of cold water. In colder regions, nutrients from the deeper layers of the ocean are more readily brought to the surface through various oceanic processes like upwelling, tidal action, and seasonal mixing.

Think of a well-fertilized garden versus a nutrient-poor one. In the former, you’d expect a lush array of plants that not only thrive, but also support a diversity of insect and animal life. Similarly, the nutrient-rich cold waters support “blooms” of phytoplankton, a critical component of the oceanic food web. Phytoplankton are microscopic, photosynthetic organisms that form the foundation of aquatic food webs, producing oxygen and serving as a primary food source for marine life. When these primary producers flourish, it sets off a chain reaction throughout the ecosystem. Zooplankton (tiny ocean-borne animals like krill) feast on phytoplankton, small fish feast on zooplankton, and larger predators, including larger fish, marine mammals, and seabirds, find an abundant food supply in these teeming waters.

Moreover, cold water has a higher capacity to hold dissolved gases like oxygen compared to warm water (one of the reasons that warming seas could be a problem in the future). Oxygen is a key factor for respiration in marine animals. In cold, oxygen-rich environments, organisms can efficiently carry out metabolic processes, which often results in higher rates of feeding, growth, and reproduction, thereby further boosting biological productivity.

A recent study has also shed light on how California’s rich marine ecosystem responds to climate patterns, particularly the El Niño and La Niña phases of the El Niño/Southern Oscillation (ENSO). Scientists found that during El Niño events, warmer waters and weaker upwelling lead to reduced nutrient levels in the California Current, which supports less phytoplankton and affects the entire food web, including fish populations. In contrast, La Niña conditions boost upwelling, bringing nutrient-rich waters to the surface and enhancing marine productivity. This research highlights the far-reaching impacts of climate cycles on ocean life and could help in forecasting changes that affect fisheries and marine biodiversity in California.

Sardines off the coast of California (Photo: NOAA)

Studies have also shown the direct correlation between the intensity of upwelling and the success of fish populations. A study published in the journal “Science Advances” in 2019 explored how variations in upwelling affect the foraging behavior and success of California sea lions. Researchers found that in years with strong upwelling, sea lions didn’t have to travel as far to find food, which, in turn, positively impacted their population’s health.

Upwelling is a critical oceanic process that helps maintain the stable and immensely productive California marine ecosystem, but there are serious concerns that the dynamics behind upwelling could be changing due to climate change.

Of course, upwelling isn’t just a California thing; it’s a global phenomenon that occurs in various parts of the world, from the coasts of Peru to the Canary Islands. But California is like the poster child, thanks to extensive research and its vital role in a multi-billion dollar fishing industry that includes coveted species like albacore tuna, swordfish, Dungeness crab, squid, and sardines.

Inspiration Point Channel Islands (Photo: NPS)

The Channel Islands provide an excellent example of a place off the California coast where the impacts of upwelling and ocean currents are particularly significant. Channel Islands National Park is uniquely located in a “transition zone” of less than 100 km where many ocean currents converge. This results in strikingly different ocean conditions at individual islands and affects where different species are found and how abundant they are.

Long-term studies of upwelling and the California Current system have shed further light on the importance of these complex and ever changing phenomenon. For example, the annual California Current Ecosystem Status Report captures the big picture of the biology, climate, physical, and social conditions of the marine ecosystem. In 2021, the California Current continued a recent cooling trend, with researchers recording the coldest conditions on the continental shelf in nearly a decade. These cooler coastal waters resulted from strong wind-driven upwelling—nutrient-rich, deep ocean water coming to the surface.

Sea surface temperature anomalies across the northeastern Pacific in August, 2019. A marine heat wave spread across the northeastern Pacific Ocean from 2014 to 2016 and the expanse of warm surface water returned to the region in 2019. (NASA Earth Observatory)

But things have grown more precarious in the north and out to sea. For the last ten years, the northeast Pacific Ocean has been a hotspot for marine heatwaves. Just this past year, scientists monitored the seventh most intense marine heatwave in this region since records began in 1982. However, there was a twist in the tale: unlike in previous years, the elevated water temperatures remained further offshore, a phenomenon partly attributable to stronger-than-average coastal upwelling. As a result, the strip of waters closer to the coast was able to maintain its cooler temperatures, thereby preserving a productive environment for marine life.

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Upwelling is a critical oceanic process that helps maintain the stable and immensely productive California marine ecosystem, but there are serious concerns that the dynamics behind upwelling could be changing due to climate change. Warming ocean temperatures and changes in wind patterns could potentially disrupt the timing and intensity of upwelling, putting the bounty of California’s coast at risk.

Understanding these shifts is imperative for devising strategies to mitigate adverse effects on marine life and commercial fisheries. Therefore, sustained research efforts must continue to dissect this complex (and incredibly important) oceanic process and its increasingly uncertain future.

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Navigating the Unseen Current: How the California Current System Shapes Our Ocean, Climate, and Future

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The stretch of water hugging the western shores of North America is a biological powerhouse, teeming with life and considered one of the most fertile marine environments on the planet. The California Current, originating from the colder regions up near British Columbia, sweeps its way down toward Baja California, extending laterally several hundred miles offshore into deep oceanic waters off the continental shelf. The current brings with it not just frigid waters but also a richness of life. As if choreographed, winds usually gust from the land towards the ocean, nudging surface waters away from the coastline. This displacement makes room for deeper, nutrient-packed waters to ascend, in a phenomenon aptly termed upwelling. Coastal upwelling is the dominant physical forcing affecting production in the California Current System.

This blend of icy waters and nutrient wealth sparks a bloom of marine vegetation, ranging from minuscule phytoplankton to sprawling underwater forests of kelp. These plants, often dubbed the “primary producers,” act as the nucleus of an intricate food web. The bounty includes thriving fisheries, generous populations of marine mammals like whales, seals, and dolphins, as well as a multitude of seabirds. The breadth of this fecund ecosystem can span an astonishing distance—up to 300 miles from the shoreline, enveloping a rich diversity of life within its aquatic embrace.

Phytoplankton are a critical part of the ocean’s food web.

The California Current System (CCS) is one of those natural phenomena that don’t often make headlines but quietly shape life as we know it on the West Coast. It’s like the unsung hero of the Pacific, affecting everything from marine biodiversity to our climate, even having a say in whether you’ll need to pack sunscreen or an umbrella for your beach day.

At its core, the California Current is a cold, southward-flowing oceanic current that starts from the Gulf of Alaska and hugs the western coastline of North America. Picture a river within the ocean, except this river is carrying cold, nutrient-rich water from the North Pacific all the way down to the southern tip of Baja California in Mexico. The California Current is part of a broader gyre system that also includes the North Pacific Current, the California Undercurrent, and the Davidson Current. Together, they create a dynamic dance of currents that provide a lifeline to a host of marine species and play a significant role in weather patterns.

The dynamics of the California Current result in abundant wildlife, like these common dolphins, off the coast of California.

The CCS owes its formation to a combination of factors like Earth’s rotation, the prevailing westerly winds, and the shape of the coastline. These elements work in concert to set up a sort of “conveyor belt” for water, funneling it down from higher latitudes. Over millions of years, this system has become a finely tuned natural mechanism that has shaped the ecology and climate of the region in profound ways.

The cold, nutrient-rich waters of the California Current serve as a veritable buffet for marine life. When we talk about nutrients, we’re primarily talking about nitrates and phosphates that act like fertilizer for phytoplankton, the microscopic plants at the base of the marine food web. As phytoplankton bloom, they become a food source for zooplankton, which in turn are gobbled up by larger fish. This cascade effect supports a rich, biodiverse ecosystem that includes everything from sardines and anchovies to humpback whales and even great white sharks. Even seabirds get in on the action, relying on the abundant marine life for nourishment.

But the California Current doesn’t stop at influencing marine biology; it’s a key player in regional climate as well. For example, the current helps moderate coastal temperatures by funneling cooler air inland. This has a ripple effect on weather patterns and even contributes to the famous “June Gloom” that Angelenos love to lament. Ever wonder why California’s coastal cities have relatively mild, Mediterranean climates while just a short drive inland can bring you much hotter conditions? Tip your hat to the CCS.

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Climate change is, of course, the elephant in the room. A study published in the journal “Geophysical Research Letters” in 2019 highlighted a gradual weakening of the California Current due to warming ocean temperatures. As the current weakens, there’s potential for less upwelling, which means fewer nutrients reaching the surface. Less nutrient-rich water could be a gut punch to the marine food web, affecting fish populations and, by extension, the larger predators and human industries that rely on them.

The cold, nutrient-rich waters of the California Current serve as a veritable buffet for marine life.

Another concern is ocean acidification. The same cold, nutrient-rich waters that make the CCS a hotspot for marine life also make it more susceptible to acidification as they absorb more CO2 from the atmosphere. According to a 2020 study in the journal “Nature,” this could have far-reaching consequences for shell-forming organisms like mollusks and some types of plankton, which play crucial roles in the ecosystem.

So why is all of this important? Well, the California Current is a vital cog in the machinery of our planet. It supports rich biodiversity, influences climate, and even has economic implications, given the commercial fisheries that rely on its abundant marine life. A healthy CCS is good news for everyone, from the weekend beachgoer to scientists concerned about biodiversity.

But as we confront a changing climate, the CCS is a poignant reminder that even the most stable and established natural systems are not immune to disruption. Therefore, understanding it is not just an academic exercise, but a necessary step in safeguarding the fragile balance of life along the western edge of North America.

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Davidson Seamount and the Unseen Mountains and Hidden Treasures Off California’s Coast

California’s coast is home to dozens of seamounts, each harboring diverse ecosystems and geological mysteries waiting to be explored.

The **Octopuses Garden on Davidson Seamount in California. Photo Credit:** Chad King / OET, NOAA

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If you’ve ever looked out at the vastness of the ocean, you might think it’s a uniformly barren and flat landscape below the tranquil or tempestuous waves. But you’d be mistaken. Imagine for a moment a hidden world of underwater mountains, volcanoes that never broke the water’s surface, all lying in the mysterious depths of the ocean. These enigmatic formations are known as seamounts, and off the coast of California, they constitute an environment as fascinating as it is vital.

Interestingly, a lot of these seamounts off California are actually relatively new to science. According to Robert Kunzig and his book Mapping the Deep: “In 1984, a sidescan survey off southern California revealed a hundred uncharted seamounts, or undersea volcanoes, in a region that had been thought to be flat.”

The genesis of these structures begins with a geologic process known as plate tectonics. As tectonic plates move beneath the Earth’s crust, they create hotspots of molten rock. This magma escapes through weak points in the crust and solidifies as it reaches the cold seawater, gradually building up into an undersea mountain. After thousands of years, a seamount is born. Most of California’s seamounts are conical in shape, though erosion and other geological forces can turn them into more complex formations over time.

Each seamount is a world unto itself, with distinct mineral compositions, shapes, and ecosystems. Recent research has energized the scientific community. For instance, the Davidson Seamount is the most well-known of these volcanoes and was the first underwater peak to be named a seamount. The seamount is named for George Davidson, a British pioneering scientist and surveyor. Located about 80 km (50 miles) off the coast of Big Sur, it’s shaped like an elongated arrowhead made up of several parallel ridges of sheer volcanic cones. Most of these erupted about 10-15 million years ago, and are made up 320 cubic km of hawaiite, mugearite, and alkalic basalt, the basalt types commonly found along spreading ridges like the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

The sheer number of seamounts only began to emerge when new detection methods were developed, including the ability to spot them from space. These underwater mountains are so massive that they create a gravitational pull, drawing seawater slightly toward their center of mass, much like the moon’s pull generates tides. Since seawater is incompressible, it doesn’t compress around the seamounts but instead forms slight bulges on the ocean surface. Satellites can detect these bulges, helping locate the hidden, basaltic peaks below. Satellite studies suggest that the largest seamounts—those over 5,000 feet—may number anywhere from thirty thousand to over one hundred thousand worldwide, with high concentrations in the central Pacific, Indian, and Atlantic Oceans, around Antarctica, and in the Mediterranean. Each of these seamounts is an underwater volcano, typically lining mid-ocean ridges, subduction zones, or one of the forty to fifty oceanic hot spots where the earth’s crust is thin and magma rises from the mantle.

Davidson Seamount is by far the best-studied of the many seamounts off the California coast. Stretching a sprawling 26 miles in length and spanning 8 miles across, this colossal seamount ranks among the largest known formations of its kind in U.S. territorial waters. Towering at a remarkable 7,480 feet from its base to its peak, the mountain remains shrouded in the depths, with its summit situated a substantial 4,101 feet beneath the ocean’s surface. Studies have indicated that some seamounts contain deposits of rare earth elements, which could have potential economic importance in the future.

A rorqual whale fall found near Davidson Seamount at a depth of 3,200 meters. **Photo Credit:** Chad King / OET, NOAA

Seamounts are biodiversity hotspots. Boasting an incredibly diverse range of deep-sea corals, Davidson Seamount serves as a kind of underwater Eden. Often referred to as “An Oasis in the Deep,” this submerged mountain is a bustling metropolis of marine life, featuring expansive coral forests and sprawling sponge fields. But it doesn’t stop there—crabs, deep-sea fishes, shrimp, basket stars, and a host of rare and still-unidentified bottom-dwelling creatures also call this place home. The seamount is more than just a biologically rich environment; it’s a treasure trove of national importance for its contributions to ocean conservation, scientific research, education, aesthetics, and even history.

Map of seamounts along the California coast. (*Marine Conservation Institute*)

Perhaps the most astonishing discovery at Davidson Seamount occurred in 2018, when scientists discovered the “Octopus Garden,” the largest known aggregation of octopuses in the world. The garden is about two miles deep and was discovered by researchers on the research vessel (RV) Nautilus. The team of scientists initially spotted a pair of octopuses through a camera on a remotely operated vehicle (ROV). Amanda Kahn, an ecologist at Moss Landing Marine Laboratories and San Jose State University, who was on the Nautilus during the discovery, told Scientific American that after observing the pair for a bit, the operators started to drift away from the rocks to move on, but immediately saw something unusual. “Up ahead of us were streams of 20 or more octopuses nestled in crevices,” Kahn says.

Typically lone wanderers of the ocean, octopuses aren’t known for their social gatherings. So, when researchers stumbled upon more than just one or two of these creatures, they knew something out of the ordinary was afoot. Swiftly pivoting from their original plans, the team zeroed in for a closer look. What they found was a community of these grapefruit-sized, opalescent octopuses, along with something even more mysterious—unusual shimmers in the surrounding water, hinting at the existence of some kind of underwater fluid seeps or springs. It turns out the octopuses migrate to deep-sea hydrothermal springs to breed. The females brood their eggs in the garden, where it is warmer than surrounding waters.

“This Octopus Garden is by far the largest aggregate of octopuses known anywhere in the world, deep-sea or not,” James Barry, a benthic ecologist at the Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute told Scientific American. Barry is the leader of the new study, published on in August in Science Advances, that reveals why the animals are gathering. The researchers have observed over 5,700 Pearl octopuses (Muusoctopus robustus) breeding near Davidson Seamount, 3,200 meters below the ocean’s surface. In this deep-sea nursery, octopus mothers keep their eggs warm in 5°C waters flowing from a hydrothermal spring. The water is more than 3°C warmer than the surrounding ocean. This added warmth accelerates the embryos’ development, allowing them to fully mature in just under two years on average.

The Octopuses Garden was studied over the course of 14 dives with MBARI’s remotely operated vehicle (ROV) Doc Ricketts. It is within the Monterey Bay National Marine Sanctuary, so it is federally protected against exploitation and extraction., although many scientists are concerned that global warming could end up having a deleterious impact on the biological life found around seamounts.

So far scientists have discovered other octopus gardens around the globe. There are four deep-sea octopus gardens in total. Two are located off the coast of Central California and two are off the coast of Costa Rica.

New technological advancements like Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) have recently opened doors to discoveries we never thought possible. Cutting-edge imaging technology has finally given us the ability to capture strikingly clear and high-resolution pictures from this enigmatic deep-sea habitat. These vivid images provide both the scientific community and the general public with unprecedented peeks into the lives of rare marine species inhabiting this mostly cold and dark underwater world.

Depth color-coded map of Monterey Canyon. (Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute)

Davidson Seamount’s proximity to the rich educational and research ecosystem in the Monterey Bay area. One of the world’s preeminent ocean research organizations, the Monterey Bay Research Institute (MBARI), is located in Moss Landing, California, right at the spot where the magnificent Monterey Canyon stretches away from the coast for hundreds of miles. This geographic boon makes it easier for interdisciplinary teams to join forces, enriching our understanding and educational outreach related to this uniquely captivating undersea landscape.

Beyond being hubs of biodiversity, seamounts also serve as waypoints for migratory species. Just like rest stops along a highway, these underwater mountains provide food and shelter for creatures like whales and tuna on their long journeys. This makes seamounts critical for the health of global marine ecosystems. Additionally, understanding seamounts could give us insights into climate change. They play a role in ocean circulation patterns, which, in turn, affect global weather systems. They are also excellent “archives” of long-term climate data, which could help us understand past climate variations and predict future trends.

Advances in underwater technology, like ROVs, autonomous submersibles and better remote sensing methods, are making it easier to study these mysterious mountains. But many questions still remain unanswered. For instance, how exactly do seamount ecosystems interact with surrounding marine environments? What are the long-term impacts of human activities, like deep-sea mining or overfishing, on these fragile habitats? And what untapped resources, both biological and mineral, lie waiting in these submerged summits?

A time-lapse camera designed by MBARI engineers allowed researchers to observe activity at the
Octopus Garden between research expeditions. (Photo: MBARI)

We can wax poetic about the mysteries of seamounts, but understanding them better is crucial for the preservation of marine ecosystems and for equipping ourselves with the knowledge to tackle environmental challenges. So, the next time you look out over the ocean, consider the hidden worlds lying beneath those waves—each a bustling metropolis of life and a potential goldmine of scientific discovery.

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More information:

Video about California seamounts

Recent discovery of the Octopuses garden (MBARI).

The Garibaldi’s Dance of Color and Character in California’s Coastal Ballet

Underwater photos of California’s coast featured in books and magazines almost always showcase a certain fish: the garibaldi. Within the underwater kaleidoscope of California’s coastal waters, the Garibaldi fish stands out with its fiery orange hue. The garibaldi, a member of the damselfish family, is the California State marine fish, and its possession is illegal.

The fish is likely named after the 19th-century Italian revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi, whose army wore bright red shirts, or after the “garibaldi”, a woman’s red blouse worn in the 1890’s.

Biologically speaking, the Garibaldi fish owe their orange coloring mainly to pigments called carotenoids. These carotenoids are pretty interesting; you’ll find them in many fruits and vegetables, like carrots, for example, where they give off that familiar orange glow. Garibaldi eat a diet rich in crustaceans, such as crabs and shrimps, which are packed with these pigments. When the fish ingest them, the carotenoids are absorbed and deposited into the skin tissues.

Carotenoids can also act as antioxidants, which means they might even play a role in protecting the fish’s cells from damage. This is a bit of a two-for-one deal: not only do they get to look good, but they also get some potential health benefits as well.

Interestingly, there’s a bit of a territorial aspect to the bright orange coloration. Garibaldi fish are known to be quite territorial, and the males are especially flashy. They use their bright coloration to ward off rivals and also to attract mates.

The color isn’t just a superficial beauty mark; it plays a significant role in the fish’s survival and reproductive strategies. The orange hue signals strength, dominance, and overall fitness. It’s like a badge of honor they wear to proclaim, “Look at me, I’m strong, healthy, and in charge here!”

The Garibaldi is more than just a pretty face in the crowd. This fish, found from Monterey Bay down to Baja California, displays behaviors and characteristics that make it a subject of intrigue for marine biologists and diving enthusiasts alike.

One of the best places to see Garibaldi if you are a diver or enjoy snorkeling is off the coast of Catalina Island, about 20 miles from Long Beach. One particularly popular spot is Casino Point in the city of Avalon on the island.

Known for being highly territorial, the male Garibaldi is an underwater homeowner, meticulously crafting nests from red algae during mating season. This homemaking process is not just about building; it’s about showmanship. The males showcase their algae-laden nests to prospective females in an underwater dance, swimming around their creation with pride, hoping to entice the females to lay their eggs there.

A California Garibaldi protecting its nest.

But the courtship doesn’t end with the dance. Once the female is wooed and the eggs are laid, the male Garibaldi takes on the role of a nurturing parent. He stands guard over the eggs, fanning them with his pectoral fins to ensure they are well-oxygenated. He even goes to the extent of confronting divers or other fish that venture too close to his precious brood.

The Garibaldi’s territorial nature also extends to a curious interaction with humans. Despite their fierceness in protecting their domain, these fish are known to approach divers, examining them with an inquisitive gaze. This friendliness, coupled with their radiant color, makes them a favorite subject among underwater photographers.

“The only thing that seems to affect their fearless behavior is the color of the animal that’s approaching them,” said Cabrillo Marine Aquarium (CMA) Research Curator Dr. Kiersten Darrow. “They will attack everybody else, but if they see that it’s a garibaldi fish of a certain type then they will back away.”

Perhaps even more fascinating is the Garibaldi’s voice – a distinctive thumping sound that some divers have reported hearing. Though the exact reason for this sound is not entirely understood, it’s believed to be related to their territorial behavior, adding another layer to the mystique of this remarkable fish.

Beyond its engaging behaviors, the Garibaldi’s story carries a note of triumph in conservation. Its popularity led to overfishing in the past, which spurred protective measures. Today, the Garibaldi enjoys protected status in California waters, safeguarding it from harm and allowing it to thrive.

A testament to resilience, the Garibaldi can live for over 20 years, growing slowly and reaching full maturity at about six years of age. This longevity, coupled with its unique characteristics, makes it a symbol of the diverse and vibrant marine life that graces California’s coastline.

Catalina Island and Casino Point (Erik Olsen)

In the world of marine biology, where hidden wonders often lie beneath the waves, the Garibaldi emerges as a charismatic star. With its bold color, intricate courtship rituals, protective parenting, and friendly curiosity, it captures the imagination, not just as a beautiful spectacle but as a complex character in the grand tapestry of ocean life. Whether seen during a dive or behind the glass of an aquarium, the Garibaldi remains a fascinating glimpse into the rich and often surprising world beneath the sea.

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The Eucalyptus Tree’s Twisted Path to Californian Soil

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The California landscape is dotted with numerous plant species, many of them native, but few have a story as rich and multi-faceted as the eucalyptus tree. Native to Australia, this tree has made California its home over the past century and a half, creating a blend of wonder, economic expectation, and ecological concerns.

The journey of the eucalyptus tree to California dates back to the mid-19th century. Attracted by tales of gold and prosperity, many Australians made their way to the Golden State. Along with them came seeds of the eucalyptus tree, which they believed had great potential value. By the 1870s and 1880s, California was amidst a timber crisis. Native woodlands were diminishing, and the state was in dire need of a rapidly growing timber source. The eucalyptus tree, known for its rapid growth and towering heights, appeared to be a promising solution. Its proponents, believing it would not only serve as an excellent timber source but also act as a windbreak and ornamental plant, began widespread plantations.

While the eucalyptus grew impressively fast, hopes for it being a top-tier lumber source were quickly dashed. Most species planted in California had wood that was prone to warping and splitting upon drying. The enthusiasm surrounding the eucalyptus as a miracle timber tree gradually waned. What was initially perceived as a solution turned out to be more of a decorative element in the landscape rather than an economic boon.

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Despite its failure in the lumber industry, the eucalyptus managed to root itself firmly in the Californian soil. Over time, this rapid settler began to pose significant environmental concerns. Eucalyptus trees are thirsty plants. Their deep roots often outcompete native species for water, hindering the growth and survival of native Californian plants and altering the balance of local ecosystems. Furthermore, eucalyptus groves have become a concern for wildfires. Their oil-rich leaves and peeling bark make them exceptionally flammable, amplifying dangers during California’s fire-prone seasons.

While over 700 eucalyptus species exist, only a handful made it to California. The most commonly planted and now dominant species is the blue gum eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus). Towering over most trees, the blue gum can reach staggering heights, quickly establishing its dominance in the landscape. Other species like the red gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) and the sugar gum (Eucalyptus cladocalyx) have also found their way into California, albeit in smaller numbers. The sugar gum is particularly present around the campus of Stanford University.

By the late 1900s, concerns over the eucalyptus’ impact on native habitats led to movements advocating for their removal. Environmentalists and local residents began to see the tree as an invasive species that hindered the natural balance. Efforts to cut down and manage the eucalyptus population intensified, often clashing with those who had come to admire the tree’s majestic presence and the unique ambiance it provided.

Considered among the thousand-plus established alien vascular plants in California—two-thirds of which originated in Eurasia—Eucalyptus seems relatively benign. Of the 374 species in the genus that have been introduced since the 1850s, only 18 have naturalized, and only one of those, E. globulus, has become a nuisance, and then only at the urban-wildland interface along the fog belt of the central coast and Bay Area, and there only after humans gave it an enormous head start with plantations.

Even in these locations, self-sustaining feral forests have not grown dramatically beyond the boundaries of the original plantings. In the Golden State the blue gum has never been especially invasive; rather, it used to be hugely desirable. Other vegetation imported to California for ornamental purposes has spread far more widely or densely—for example, English ivy, periwinkle, ice plant, and pampas grass. Unlike Saltcedar (Tamarix ramosissima), Tasmanian blue gum is not a true problem plant. It cannot be considered a paradigmatic invader, or even a noteworthy one. The authoritative Encyclopedia of Biological Invasions makes note of the “enigmatic” low invasiveness of eucalypts worldwide—“orders of magnitude less successful as invaders than pines.”

From the perspective of both ecology and fire safety, the blue gum eucalyptus is particularly concerning in California when plantations of a single species have transformed into dense, closed-canopy forests. This issue, though, is confined to a limited number of areas within the fog belt. Even within these regions, the eucalyptus thickets are far from being barren, hostile environments.

That said, a relatively recent event did not cast the tree in good light.

The East Bay firestorm of 1991 was a catastrophic event that claimed 25 lives and rendered thousands homeless. Extensive areas of eucalyptus were consumed by the flames. For 26 years, the East Bay Firestorm firestorm was considered the worst fire in California’s history. It was also America’s most costly fire in the wildland-urban interface (WUI).

“People at the time, I don’t think, associated that with a planted plantation; it was just a eucalyptus forest,” CalPoly botanist Jenn Yost told KQED. “And then when the fire came through — I mean that fire came through so fast and so hot and so many people lost their homes that it was a natural reaction to hate blue gums at that point.”

However, it is again important to point out that the density of trees in the area was unusual and not representative of many other areas where eucalyptus have taken root.

Those opposed to the trees argue that their tendency to shed large quantities of bark exacerbates the fire hazard, and hence, they should be removed. On the other hand, proponents highlight that many of California’s native plants are also prone to burning. The 2018 Camp Fire scorched an area 153,336 acres in size, and destroyed more than 18,000 structures, most of the destruction happened within the first four hours of the fire and most of the destruction was the result of pine forests that have long been improperly managed. Both factions claim that science supports their viewpoint, but as of now, no definitive study has been able to settle the argument conclusively.

This ongoing debate has stirred deep emotions. A few years ago, an incident in the East Bay hills saw federal funding for cutting down trees withdrawn after protesters, in a dramatic display of support for the eucalyptus, got naked and literally embraced the trees on the Cal campus. While some have argued that California needs to return its natural environment to a more “pristine” state, meaning just California natives, others say that the eucalyptus poses no greater danger than many species of conifer, and that the effort to expunge eucalyptus from the landscape, given its contribution to the culture and beautification of the state is tantamount to discrimination against immigrant trees solely due to their origin, an idea which some have extended to the human population.

“We’re not natives either,” the San Diego County chief entomologist said in defense of the county’s signature tree genus.

One ecological study that compared a gathering of oaks to a blue gum grove in the neighboring areas, concluded that the blue gem eucalyptus has no major impact on animal life. In fact, the tree’s leaf litter is bustling with life, containing a complex array of microhabitats. In fact, while oaks tend to be home to more rodents, eucalyptus contains a greater number of below-ground invertebrates.

The complex relationship between Californians and the eucalyptus reflects deeper questions about nature, risk, and our connection to the landscape, and it’s a debate that shows no signs of resolution.

Among the thousand-plus non-native vascular plants that have made their home in California—two-thirds of which hail from Eurasia—the Eucalyptus is relatively mild-mannered. Since the 1850s, 374 species of Eucalyptus have been introduced to the state. Yet, of these, only 18 have successfully naturalized, and merely one, the E. globulus, has ever become problematic. This issue is isolated mainly to the WUI boundary along the fog belt of the central coast and Bay Area, and even there, only after humans heavily promoted its growth through plantation efforts.

Even within these specific regions, the self-sustaining “feral” forests haven’t expanded significantly beyond the original planting sites. In California, the blue gum eucalyptus has never been notorious for being particularly invasive; rather, it was once highly sought-after. Other non-native plants brought to California for decorative purposes, such as periwinkle, English ivy, ice plant, pampas grass, and tamarisk, have spread much more extensively or densely.

Unlike plants like Scotch and French broom, the Tasmanian blue gum eucalyptus doesn’t qualify as a genuine problem plant. It’s not viewed as a typical invader, nor is it even considered particularly noteworthy in that regard. A state survey that consulted floricultural experts produced a broad spectrum of opinions concerning the potential threat posed by eucalyptus to California’s wildlands. This contrasts sharply with the unified negative evaluation of salt cedar, which has bedeviled land managers from Southern California to Mexico.

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The final verdict on the fate of eucalyptus in Southern California has yet to be rendered. Many still think the trees have become an iconic symbol of the state, with so many trees proudly and elegantly lining pocketed and immensely Instagrammable stretches of California highway. Perhaps the key to the trees survivability and reputation is simply one of proper management. Where the trees have become too dense in fire-prone areas, maybe some measure of thinning is prudent. But to eliminate them entirely would be a great loss to the aesthetic visual appeal of California, an appeal that many Californians, even conservation-minded artists like Ansel Adams and Erin Hanson often summoned in their work.

The eucalyptus tree’s journey in California is a tale of expectations, surprises, and evolving perspectives. Whether viewed as an ornamental marvel or an ecological concern, the eucalyptus remains an integral part of California’s diverse tapestry.

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The Sweet Journey of the Boysenberry from Family Farms to Theme Park Fame

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California has long been a hub for berry innovation, boasting a rich history of developing countless berry cultivars. While it’s tough to pin down an exact number, the state’s contributions span a wide range of fruits, from strawberries to blackberries to loganberries, raspberries, and even blueberries.

Somewhere in the pantheon of berries, tucked between the familiar blackberry and the enigmatic lingonberry (a Scandinavian staple, just ask the Swedes, or swing by IKEA), you’ll find the boysenberry. With its deep maroon color, plump size, and a flavor that dances between sweet and tart, the boysenberry is a delicious emblem of California’s horticultural creativity. (Who knew we needed yet another berry?) But how did this berry come to be, and what’s the story behind a Southern California amusement park helping to make it famous?

The journey of the boysenberry begins with its namesake, Rudolph Boysen. In the early 1920s, Boysen, a curious California-based farmer and horticulturist, began experimenting with berry plants at his home in Napa, California. His objective? To develop a new hybrid berry that combined the best attributes of the European raspberry, blackberry, American dewberry, and loganberry.

On relocating to Orange County, he didn’t leave his passion behind; instead, he brought along his precious berry vines, planting them on his in-law’s property in Anaheim, which at that time was a relatively unpopulated expanse dominated by vast orange and lemon groves, interspersed with small farms and ranches.

Between 1921 and 1950, Boysen dedicated his professional life to serving as the Anaheim City Parks superintendent. His persistent efforts bore fruit (ha) in 1923 when his hybrid successfully grafted and flourished. However, while Boysen was successful in creating the berry, he faced challenges in cultivating it on a larger scale. Some years after his initial success, a near-fatal accident sidelined him, and his boysenberry plants began to wither, seemingly destined for obscurity.

Enter Walter Knott, another farmer with an insatiable curiosity and a healthy dose of ambition,. Upon discovering that Boysen had given up his cultivation experiments and sold his property, Knott went in search of the delicious berry. Accompanied by George M. Darrow of the USDA, the duo ventured to Boysen’s former farm. There, amidst an overgrowth of weeds, they discovered a few withering vines clinging to life. Determined to give these vines a new lease on life, they carefully relocated them to Knott’s farm in Buena Park, California. With diligent care and attention, Knott revived these plants, enabling them to thrive and produce fruit once again. As a result, Walter Knott became the pioneering figure in the commercial cultivation of the berry in Southern California. Knott learned about Boysen’s creation and, understanding its potential, sought out the remaining withered vines.

With a blend of horticultural expertise and an entrepreneur’s spirit, Knott not only rescued the dying boysenberry vines but also began cultivating and selling the berries on his own farm, which was located in Buena Park, California.

As the berries grew in popularity, so did Knott’s business. By the 1940s, Knott’s farm had transformed into a bustling destination, offering visitors not just the chance to buy fresh boysenberries and boysenberry products, but also to experience the charm of a recreated ghost town and other attractions. As the business evolved, it gave birth to what is now known as Knott’s Berry Farm, one of the most popular amusement parks in Southern California.

Today, it’s a full-blown amusement park with high-speed roller coasters like GhostRider, a massive wooden coaster, and Silver Bullet, a looping steel ride that twists over the park’s lake. The Timber Mountain Log Ride, one of the park’s most beloved attractions, simulates a journey through a 19th-century logging camp, complete with animatronic lumberjacks and sawmills. It’s a tribute to the massive wooden flumes that loggers once built to move timber from deep in the forest down to the mills and markets. One of the largest of these flumes was at Converse Basin, once home to the biggest contiguous grove of giant sequoias on Earth. That same area became the site of one of the most devastating logging operations in American history, where thousands of ancient sequoias—some millenia old—were cut down in the rush to harvest timber. We did a story about it you can read here. It’s a sobering reminder of how quickly early California’s natural wonders were exploited in the name of progress.

But back to Boysenberries. Let’s finish this one up, shall we?

Biologically, the boysenberry is a testament to the wonders of plant hybridization, showcasing the ability to combine distinct plant species to produce something entirely new. And tasty. The boysenberry isn’t just a product of careful crossbreeding, it’s a classic California story of perseverance, partnership, and a dose of luck. Sunshine helps too. It’s about how a nearly forgotten berry was saved from obscurity by two determined farmers and went on to become a symbol of California itself, thanks in part to the magic of an amusement park.

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Hannes Keller’s Deadly 1,000-Foot Descent off Catalina Island Was the Dive of the Century

An ambitious quest for underwater exploration that ended in tragedy beneath the Pacific waves.

The city of Avalon on Catalina Island (Erik Olsen)

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In 1962, Swiss physicist and deep-sea diving pioneer Hannes Keller embarked on an ambitious and perilous mission to push the boundaries of human endurance and underwater exploration. California, with its dramatic coastline and history of daring maritime ventures, became the setting for this bold effort to make history in diving. Partnered with British diver and journalist Peter Small, Keller aimed to descend inside a specially designed diving bell named Atlantis to an unprecedented depth of 1,000 feet off the coast of Catalina Island. Their plan involved exiting the pressurized diving bell once it reached the ocean floor, a groundbreaking and dangerous procedure that would allow them to perform tasks outside in the extreme depths. What promised to be a historic achievement, however, took a tragic turn.

Keller’s passion for deep-sea diving had recently garnered international attention, fueled by his record-breaking dives and groundbreaking research into advanced breathing gas mixtures. Working alongside Dr. Albert Bühlmann, a renowned physiologist specializing in respiration, Keller employed cutting-edge technology, including an IBM computer, to meticulously design gas formulas that could counteract the dangers of deep diving. Their innovative work addressed the twin challenges of nitrogen narcosis and decompression sickness, promising to revolutionize underwater exploration.

For Keller, diving was initially an unconventional pursuit. He was engaged in teaching mathematics to engineering students in his native town of Winterthur, close to Zurich, and had aspirations to become a pilot. However, the prohibitive cost of flying on a teacher’s salary led him to explore other avenues. Introduced to the burgeoning sport of scuba diving by a friend in the late 1950s, Keller applied his mathematical and scientific acumen to the field. He soon concluded that the existing techniques in deep-sea diving were outdated and ripe for revolutionary advancement.

“If a man could go, for instance, to 1,000 feet down and do practical work,” Mr. Keller wrote in The Sydney Morning Herald, “then all the continental shelf zone could be explored, a total of more than 16 million square miles.”

Keller prepares for his May 1961 chamber dive at the United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit (NEDU). Photo: US Navy

Keller and Bühlmann worked collaboratively to expand their computerized concoction of breathing gases, ultimately selecting a dive site off near Avalon Bay at Catalina Island in Southern California. This location was chosen due to its dramatic underwater geography, where the ocean floor descends sharply from the coast into the deep ocean.

At the time, it was widely believed that no human being could safely dive to depths beyond three hundred feet. That was because, beginning at a depth of one hundred feet, a diver breathing normal air starts to lose his mind due to nitrogen narcosis.

Partnering with Peter Small, co-founder of the British Sub Aqua Club, Hannes Keller planned their historic descent using a specially designed diving bell named Atlantis. This advanced pressurized chamber, deployed from a surface support vessel, was staffed by a skilled technical crew tasked with monitoring gas levels and maintaining constant communication with the divers through a surface-to-bell phone link. The Atlantis diving bell represented a significant leap in underwater technology, providing a controlled environment that allowed divers to venture into previously unreachable depths. Its design and operational success revolutionized the field of deep-sea exploration, offering invaluable insights into human physiology under extreme pressure and laying the groundwork for future advancements in underwater science and technology.

Keller’s experimental dives piqued the interest of the U.S. Navy, as they saw the potential to revolutionize diving safety and practicality. If proven successful, Keller’s methods could transform existing dive tables and enable safer, more practical deep-sea exploration. Encouraged by the promising outcomes of Keller’s preliminary chamber tests and several less extreme open-sea trials, the Navy allowed him to perform a test dive at their primary experimental facility, adjacent to the Washington dive school. They also became a financial supporter of Keller’s ambitious thousand-foot dive.

To carefully scrutinize the operation, the Navy designated Dr. Robert Workman, one of their foremost decompression specialists, to be present on site. A few days after reaching Catalina in late November, Dr. Workman joined Dr. Bühlmann, the rest of Keller’s team, and various onlookers aboard Eureka, an experimental offshore drilling vessel provided by Shell Oil Co. Shell, like other oil and gas enterprises, had a vested interest in innovative techniques that could enhance the productivity of commercial divers. If the dive was successful, the company would receive Keller’s secret air mixture technology and thereby become an instant frontrunner in offshore oil exploration. Their interest was particularly relevant as offshore drilling initiatives were venturing into deeper waters, both off the California shore and in the Gulf of Mexico.

Resembling a huge can of soup, Atlantis stood seven feet tall and had a diameter slightly greater than four feet. Its structure featured an access hatch at the bottom and was adorned with an array of protruding pipes and valves, adding to its industrial appearance.

As a journalist, Peter Small intended to pen a first-hand narrative of the groundbreaking dive. On December 1, as part of a final preparatory dive, Small and Keller were lowered inside Atlantis to a depth of three hundred feet, where they spent an hour scuba diving outside the bell. During the decompression process within the bell, both divers experienced relatively mild symptoms of decompression sickness, commonly known as the bends. Keller felt the effects in his belly, while Small was afflicted in his right arm. Decompression sickness is still a relatively poorly understood phenomenon, and it remains unpredictable as to which part of the body it might affect.

Keller’s symptoms abated on their own that night, but Small’s discomfort lingered until he underwent recompression treatment. Despite this warning sign, Keller was determined to continue with the dive as planned, without conducting further incremental tests at increasing depths before the ambitious thousand-foot descent. His decision was likely influenced, at least in part, by the assembled crowd of journalists and other spectators eager to witness the historic dive. The constraints of time, finances, and equipment availability added to the pressure, compelling the team to proceed with the experimental dive as scheduled.

The diving bell Atlantis is lifted out of the water after Keller and the journalist Peter Small descended 1,020 feet to the Pacific Ocean floor in December 1962.

On Monday, December 3, around noon, Atlantis began its descent beneath the surface of the Pacific, enclosing its two divers within. The journey towards the ocean floor took under thirty minutes. Upon reaching the target depth of a thousand feet, a series of dark and chaotic moments ensued. Keller exited the bell to plant a Swiss flag and an American flag on the ocean floor. In the process, his breathing hoses became entangled with the flags, and after clambering back inside Atlantis, he lost consciousness.

The gas mixture had somehow become compromised. Peter Small also blacked out, despite never having left the diving bell. As Atlantis was hastily ascended to within two hundred feet of the surface, several support divers swam down to meet the bell. Tragically, one of these support divers, Christopher Whittaker, a young man of just nineteen, disappeared without a trace.

Pacific Ocean off Catalina Island (Erik Olsen)

Keller came to roughly a half-hour after the incident, and Small regained consciousness, but it took nearly two hours for him to do so. Upon awakening, Small engaged Keller in coherent questions about what had transpired. He reported feeling cold and, although he retained the ability to speak, see, and hear, he could not feel his legs. Despite not experiencing any pain, he was too weak to stand. Leaning against his Swiss counterpart, he drifted off to sleep as their decompression within the bell continued.

Several hours later, as Atlantis was being transported back to shore to Long Beach from the dive site near Catalina, Keller discovered that Small had ceased breathing and had no pulse. Desperate to revive him, Keller administered mouth-to-mouth resuscitation and cardiac massage, but to no avail. Small was cold and pallid. The remaining pressure inside the bell, about two atmospheres, was hastily released in a frantic effort to get Small to a hospital after being trapped inside Atlantis for eight hours. Tragically, upon arrival, he was promptly pronounced dead.

The Atlantis diving bell (Paul Tzimoulis)

The Los Angeles County coroner identified the cause of death as decompression sickness. An examination revealed that Small’s tissues and organs were filled with Nitrogen gas bubbles. However, Keller contended that other factors, such as a potential heart attack and the panic Small displayed upon reaching the thousand-foot mark, contributed to the tragedy.

Regardless of the underlying causes, the catastrophic dive to thirty atmospheres and the loss of two lives led to a rapid waning of interest in Keller’s previously sensational methods. The potential for failure of this magnitude had been a concern to many in the deep diving community and the day’s events set back research in the emerging field of saturation diving. Even before this event, saturation diving had only tepid support from the Navy, but this made some people loss faith in the technique. Of course, it would not be the end of saturation diving, not by a long shot.

Hannes Keller in his later years. (Credit: Keller, Esther, Niederglatt, Switzerland)

Modern deep-water diving owes much to the groundbreaking experiments of Hannes Keller. His historic dive to 1,020 feet (311 meters) off Catalina Island was a remarkable achievement that captivated the world. Far from being a mere stunt, as some critics claimed, Keller’s dive was a meticulously planned scientific endeavor designed to push the boundaries of human exploration of the ocean depths. This Swiss adventurer’s pioneering work laid the foundation for advances in deep-sea diving techniques, leaving an enduring legacy in the field.

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Christopher Swann, a diving historian, said the dive “was a milepost in the sense that it was the first time something like that had been done.”

Keller ended up living a rich and long life, dying on December 1, 2022, at at a nursing home in Wallisellen, Switzerland, near his home in Niederglatt. He was 88.

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The Vital Role of Upwelling in California’s Rich Ocean Life

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